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BULLETIN  82  DECEMBER,  1908 

Delaware  College 

Agricultural 

Experiment  Station 

Report  on 

Forest  Conditions  in  Delaware 

AND 

A  Forest  Policy  for  the  State 


BY 

W.  D.[STERRETT 
Forest  Assistant,  Forest  Service 

1907 


NEWARK,  :; 


Delaware  College 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

GEO.  G.  KERR,  Chairman Newark,  Del. 

DANIEL  W.  CORBIT Odessa,  Del. 

SAMUEL  H.  DERBY Woodside,  Del. 

SAMUEL  H.  MESSICK Bridgeville,  Del. 

MANLOVE  HAYES  Dover,  Del. 


STATION   STAFF. 

HARRY  HAYWAED,  M.  S Director 

CLINTON  0.  HOUGHTON,  B.  A Entomologist 

CHARLES  F.  DAWSON,  M.  D.,  D.  V.  S Veterinarian 

CHARLES  A.  McCUE,  B.  S Horticulturist 

MEL  T.  COOK,  Ph.  D Plant  Pathologist 

ARTHUR  E.  GRANTHAM,  B.  A.,  B.  S.  A .Agronomist 

FIRMAN  THOMPSON,  B.  S Chemist 

LOTTIE  W.  BAKER Secretary 

PERLE  A.  DUTTON Farm  Superintendent 


The  Station  bulletins  are  published  quarterly,  and  distributed  free 
of  expense  to  those  who  request  same. 

All  communications  should  be  addressed, 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

Newark,  Delaware. 


Practical  Forestry  is  one  of  the  most  recent  industries  to  be 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  farmer.  Few,  however,  yet  realize  the 
importance  of  caring  systematically  lor'the  trees  that  form  the  wood 
lot  on  nearly  every  farm,  or  of  husbanding  the  timber  tracts  that  it  is 
the  privilege  of  a  few  land  owners  to  possess. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  some  of  the  most  fundamental 

principles  that  underlie. this  increasingly  important  branch  of  farm 

economy  that  the  Forest 'Service  of  tne't/nited  States  Department  of 

Agriculture  was  asked  to  £o:Qperat-e  in  tlje  preparation  of  this  Bulletin. 

'•'•  '•''.'- '  •'    •»•••'    -   •         THE  DIRECTOR. 


Report  on  Forest  Conditions  in  Delaware 


AND  A 


Forest  Policy  for  the  State 

BY  W.  D.  STERRETT 
Forest  Assistant,  Forest  Service 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  study  of  forest  conditions  in  Delaware  by  the  United  States 
Forest  Service,  resulting  in  this  report,  was  brought  about  by  Profes- 
sor Hayward,  Director  of  the  Delaware  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Professor  Hayward  made  application  to  the  Forest  Service  No- 
vember 26,  1906,  for  a  co-operative  forest  study  of  the  State,  the  ex- 
pense of  the  work  to  be  born  jointly  by  the  Service  and  the  Station.  It 
was  agreed  that  the  work  should  consist  of  a  careful  examination  of 
existing  forest  conditions  with  the  purpose  of  recommending  practical 
measures  for  the  management  of  the  various  classes  of  woodland,  and 
of  formulating  a  definite  forest  policy  for  the  State.  The  Forest  Ser- 
vice commenced  the  work  the  middle  of  March,  1907,  and  the  field 
data,  which  form  the  basis  of  this  report,  were  collected  during  the  fol- 
lowing two  months  by  an  officer  of  the  Service. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS. 

The  conclusions  and  recommendations  based  upon  this  study  may 
be  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  Delaware  is  a  State  of  farms,  and  most  of  the  land  is  too  valu- 
able for  agricultural  purposes  to  be  used  for  growing  forests.     How- 
ever,  a  small  woodlot  is  a  necessary  part  of  every  well  equipped  farm, 
no  matter  how  valuable  for  farming  purposes  is  the  land  already  in 
woods. 

2.  It  is  advisable  in  certain  parts  of  Delaware  to  plant  and  main- 
tain trees  to  serve  as  windbreaks  and  shelter-belts  in  localities  devoid 
of  extensive  wooded  areas,  where  the  country  is  practically  all  cleared 
up  and  under  cultivation. 

3.  The  climate  and  soils  of  Delaware  are  uniformly  well  adapted 
to  extremely  rapid  tree  growth. 

4.  The  market  for  forest  products  is  as  favorable  as  can  be  found 
anywhere  in  the  United  States,  and  is  extremely  conducive  to  care  and 
economy  in  forest  management. 


362617 


4  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

5.  Timber  growing,  with  careful  treatment,  is  a  profitable  propo- 
sition anywhere  in  the  State  on  lands  not  valued  at  more  than  $15  per 
acre  for  agriculture. 

6.  Land  well  stocked  with  loblolly  pine,  one  year  old,  will  pay 
five  per  cent  compound  interest  on  a  valuation  of  $20  per  acre  for  the 
land  and  seedlings. 

7.  The  woodlots  situated  on  valuable  farms  should  be  made  to 
produce  the  highest  possible  amount  of  wood  per  acre.     In  order  to 
have  fully  stocked  woodlots  attention  should  be  given  to  tree  planting, 
The  woodlots,  for  the  most  part,  are  in  bad  condition  and  in  much  need 
of  attention  in  order  to  make  them  yield  high  returns.     The  present 
haphazard  method  of  cutting  is  poor  economy. 

8.  The  large  areas  of  forest  land,  chiefly  in  Sussex  County,  could 
be  made  to  produce,  through  better  management,  much  more  timber 
than  is  at  present  being  grown. 

9.  Practically  all  land  in  Delaware  is  adaptable  to  farming.  But 
on  cheaper  and  less  desirable  classes   of   land,    as   found  in   Sussex 
County,  it  will  frequently  pay  better  to  grow  timber,  especially  if  the 
land  is  under  proper  forest  management.    It  will  often  be  best  to  prac- 
tice intensive  farming  on  small  areas  of  the  most  valuable  agricultural 
land,  and  allow  the  rest  to  come  up  to  forest. 

10.  Delaware  should  encourage  the  rational  treatment  of  its  for- 
ests by  private  owners  by  taking  action  along  the  following  lines  : 

a.  By  enacting  adequate  fire  and  trespass  laws  for  the  protection 
of  private  forests,  and  by  creating  an  equitable  system  of  county  tax- 
ation for  forest  lands. 

&.  Provision  should  be  made  for  lectures  on  forestry  before  farm- 
ers' institutes  and  at  the  State  College. 

c.  Provision  should  be  made  for  expert  examination  of  private 
woodlands  and  advice  as  to  proper  methods  of  handling  them  at  a 
minimum  cost  to  the  owners. 

d.  A  nursery  should  be  established  and  maintained  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Experiment  Station,  in  order  to  provide  tree  seedlings 
free  of  charge  to  those  wishing  to  plant. 

e.  Provision  should  be  made  for  experimental  planting  and  for- 
estry work,  especially  on  lands  belonging  to  the  State  or  public  institu- 
tions, and  for  publishing  the  results  of  forest  management  in  different 
parts  of  the  State. 

11.  There  should  be  created  a  State  Board  of  Forestry  consist- 
ing of  seven  members,  including  the  Governor  of  the  State,  the  Direc- 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  5 

tor  of  the  Experiment  Station,  the  State  Horticulturist,  and  the  three 
members  and  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture;  which 
Board  should  serve  without  compensation,  save  for  actual  necessary 
expenses  incurred  in  the  performance  of  their  official  duties. 

12.  A  State  Forest  should  be  created  on  the  large  area  of  beach 
land  owned  by  the  State,  and  placed  under  the  general  supervision  of 
the  State  Board  of  Forestry.    There  is  fine  opportunity  here  for  plant- 
ing which  would  be  a  protective  measure  in  the  fixation  of  sand  dunes, 
and  should  also  prove,  in  the  long  run,  a  good  commercial  proposition. 
This  area  should  form  the  basis  for  additional  areas  being  set  aside  as 
State  Forests. 

13.  It  is  advised  that  the  State  buy  land,  if  possible,  for  forest 
reservation  purposes  at  a  price  not  to  exceed  $10  per  acre,  and  in  con- 
tiguous holdings,  of  never  less  than  100  acres  in  extent  and  preferably 
500. 

14.  It  is  advised  that  a  technically  trained  forester  be  appointed, 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  staff  at  the  Experiment  Station  and  the  State  Col- 
lege, to  carry  out  the  recommendations  given  under  section  10 ;  and  to 
administer  private  forests  and  all  State  Forests  which  may  be  created. 

LOCATION  AND  AREA. 

Delaware  forms  the  eastern  half  of  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula lying  between  the  Chesapeake  Bay  on  the  west,  and  the  Delaware 
River,  Delaware  Bay  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east.  It  extends 
about  100  miles  north  and  south,  and  varies  in  width  from  9  to  36 
miles.  It  has  an  approximate  area  of  1,950  square  miles  of  land  sur- 
face, or  about  1,250,000  acres. 

The  State  is  divided  into  three  counties,  lying  end  to  end  in  a  row, 
New  Castle  in  the  north,  Kent  in  the  center,  and  Sussex  in  the  south. 
The  areas,  and  population  of  the  counties,  according  to  the  1900  cen- 
sus, are  as  follows : 

Area — Acres.  County.  Population. 

277,760  New  Castle  109,697 

393,600  Kent  32,762 

583,040  Sussex  42,27C 


1,254,400  Total,  184,735 

PHYSIOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY. 

Delaware  lies  for  the  most  part  within  the  physiographic  division 
known  as  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  which  has  an  elevation  above  sea 


6  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

level  of  less  than  100  feet,  and  has  a  flat  to  gently  rolling  topography. 
The  extreme  northern  part  of  the  State  lies  in  the  Piedmont  Plateau 
Region,  with  an  elevation  varying  between  100  and  438  feet  above  sea 
level,  and  in  general  may  be  understood  as  that  portion  north  of  the 
tracks  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  from  Newark  to  Wilmington  and 
Philadelphia.  In  the  Coastal  Plain  the  streams  are  tidal  estuaries  for 
a  considerable  distance  back  from  their  mouths,  and  flow  through  a 
flat  country  with  a  sluggish  current,  while  in  the  Piedmont  section  the 
streams  have  considerable  current,  and  flow  through  deep  and  narrow 
gorges  which  they  have  cut  for  themselves.  The  accompanying  map 
indicates  how  the  State  is  drained  by  streams  flowing  eastward  into  the 
Delaware  River  and  Bay,  and  westward  into  the  Chesapeake  Bay, 
crossing  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland.  The  Coastal  Plain  region  in 
the  State  was  originally  very  poorly  drained  and  a  large  part  of  it 
formerly  upland  swamp  which  has  been  gradually  drained  and  con- 
verted into  fertile  agricultural  land.  The  Coastal  Plain  is  character- 
ized by  several  extensive  broad  level  stretches  lying  at  different  eleva- 
tions above  sea.  The  general  elevation  of  different  portions  of  the 
State  is  indicated  on  the  map.  The  Piedmont  region  may  be  consid- 
ered as  identical  with  the  portion  indicated  as  Archean  formation  on 
the  map,  while  the  remaining  part  belongs  to  the  Atlantic  Coastal 
Plain. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


GEOLOGICAL     PERIODS     AND    PHYSIOGRAPHY 
OF    DELAWARE 


P  E  N  N  S  Y  L  V  A  N  I  A 


NEOCENE 
3  CRETACEOUS 
ARCHEAN 


O 

feowick   Light 


8  BULLETIN  No.  82^- 

A  •» 

There  are  three  geological  epochs  represented  in  the  State — 
Archean,  Cretaceous,  and  Neocene.  (See  Map.)  In  Kent  and  Sussex 
counties  the  superficial  geology  is  entirely  Neocene,  while  New  Castle 
County  has  the  Archean  formation  in  its  northern  part,  Cretaceous 
in  the  central  portion,  and  Neocene  in  the  southern.  The  Archean  for- 
mation is  characterized  by  the  occurrence  of  gneissic  rocks  and  under- 
lying crystalline  schists ;  the  Cretaceous  belt  has  beds  of  clays,  shales, 
and  marls ;  the  Neocene  formation  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of 
marls  and  clays,  sands  and  gravels,  and  with  no  underlying  or  out- 
cropping rock. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  character  of  the  soil  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  State.  In  the  Piedmont  section  the  soil  is  residual, 
resulting  from  the  weathering  and  decomposition  of  the  underlying 
schists  and  gneisses,  and  has  been  identified  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  as 
belonging  to  the  Cecil  series.  It  varies  from  a  silt  loam  to  a  stiff  clay, 
and  is  deep  to  moderate  in  depth,  and  uniformly  fertile  and  well- 
drained.  The  soil  in  the  Coastal  Plain  is  a  very  deep  alluvial  soil,  often 
with  poor  underdrainage.  In  the  Cretaceous  belt  the  soil  averages 
heavier  than  in  the  Neocene  formation,  and  southward  it  is  increas- 
ingly sandy.  Throughout  the  whole  State  the  soil  is  extremely  favor- 
able to  rapid  tree-growth. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  Delaware  is  uniformly  mild  and  equable,  and  suit- 
able to  a  great  variety  of  crops.  The  following  table,  taken  from  re- 
ports of  the  Weather  bureau  for  1906,  shows  the  normal  temperature 
and  rainfall  for  northern,  central,  and  southern  Delaware. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


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10  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

The  average  date  of  the  first  killing  frost  in  the  fall  is  October  20, 
and  of  the  last  in  the  spring  April  17.  In  general  the  tidewater  por- 
tions of  the  State  are  more  free  from  severe  frosts  and  have  longer 
growing  seasons  than  inland  portions,  owing  to  the  modifying  influ- 
ence on  the  climate  of  proximity  to  large  bodies  of  water.  The  climate 
of  the  whole  State  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  an  extremely  rapid 
growth  of  trees,  as  the  growing  seasons  are  uniformly  of  long  duration, 
and  the  atmospheric  moisture  conditions  very  favorable. 

FOREST  STATISTICS. 

The  census  estimates  that  in  1900  there  were  700  square  miles  of 
the  State  wooded,  or  36  per  cent  of  its  total  area.  This  is  much  too 
high  an  estimate,  as  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  State  is  cleared  and 
under  cultivation.  The  census  figures  for  1900  on  areas  included  in 
farms,  which  constitute  85  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  State,  are 
as  follows : 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


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12  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

None  of  the  70  per  cent  of  improved  land  is  wooded,  and  not  all  of 
the  30  per  cent  unimproved  can  be  classed  as  woodland.  The  value  of 
land  has  greatly  advanced  since  1900,  and  now  it  is  nearly  double  what 
it  was  then.  There  are  considerable  areas  of  cut-over  forest  land  or 
slightly  improved  land  in  southern  Delaware  which  can  be  bought  for 
$5  to  $15  an  acre,  on  which  timber  growing  could  easily  be  made  to 
pay  good  interest. 

The  following  statistics  on  the  lumber  industry  in  the  State  are 
also  taken  from  the  census  of  1900 : 

Number  of  mills  76 

Total  capital  invested $354,464 

Total  value  of  product 471,482 

Total  value  of  rough  sawed  lumber 395,828 

72  per  cent  from  pine  and  the  rest  from  hardwoods. 

Total  amount  of  rough  sawed  lumber,  35,955  M  board  feet,  88  per 
cent  of  which  is  pine  and  only  12  per  cent  hardwood,  mostly  oak. 

Figures  collected  by  the  Forest  Service  and  the  Census  Bureau,  in 
co-operation,  show  a  total  cut  for  Delaware  in  1906  of  44,487,000  board 
feet.  This  amount  was  divided  among  species  as  follows : 

Board  Feet. 

Yellow  pine   33,990,000 

White  pine 1,900,000 

Oak 4,233,000 

Maple 365,000 

Cypress 56,000 

Yellow  poplar 25,000 

Red  gum 50,000 

Chestnut 338,000 

Cedar 251,000 

Beech 326,000 

Ash 3,000 

Hickory 116,000 

All  other  hardwoods 2,834,000 

In  proportion  to  its  size,  Delaware  in  1900  cut  more  timber  than 
either  Maryland  or  New  Jersey,  and  in  1906  it  actually  cut  more  than 
New  Jersey.  The  timber  is  very  closely  utilized,  and  the  average 
amount  of  waste  less  than  in  New  Jersey  or  Maryland,  due  to  the  fact 
that  forests  everywhere  in  Delaware  are  very  accessible,  and  also  be- 
cause better  market  conditions  prevail  than  in  the  two  States  men- 
tioned. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  13 

To  the  above  figures  on  the  lumber  industry  should  be  added  fig- 
ures on  the  consumption  of  wood  in  the  manufacture  of  pulp.  There 
are  six  pulp  mills  in  the  State  which,  in  1900,  consumed  21,320  cords 
of  wood,  mostly  tulip  poplar,  which,  calculated  by  board  measure, 
would  amount  to  over  10  million  feet.  Probably  about  half  of  this 
amount  came  from  outside  the  State. 

UTILIZATION  OF  FOREST  PRODUCTS. 

Delaware  is  a  wood-importing,  rather  than  a  wood-exporting  State, 
as  it  consumes  much  more  lumber  than  it  manufactures.  The  high 
prices  for  timber  products,  which  have  been  reached  recently,  have 
brought  about  clean  and  economic  forest  utilization,  and  there  is  now 
very  little  waste  material  left  in  the  woods  after  lumbering. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  uses  to  which  timber  products  in  Dela- 
ware are  applied : 

Saw-timber — very  extensive  use  all  over  the  State.  Species  used 
chiefly  oak,  poplar,  chestnut,  and  pine. 

Cordwood — very  extensive  all  over  State.    All  species  used. 

Charcoal — slight,  only  in  southeastern  part  of  State ;  spruce  pine 
used. 

Railroad  ties — extensive  all  over  State ;  principally  white  oak, 
chestnut,  and  red  oak  used. 

Poles — extensive  throughout  State;  chestnut  used  almost  exclu- 
sively ;  some  little  cedar  and  spruce  pine,  the  latter  very  unsuccessful. 

Pulp  wood — slight,  in  northern  part  of  State;  poplar  and  sweet 
gum. 

Piles — extensive  in  Sussex  County ;  mostly  pine,  and  some  oak. 

Shingles — slight  in  Sussex  County;  mostly  pine. 

Lath — slight  in  Sussex  County ;  pine  used. 

Staves — slight ;  pine  used. 

Heading — extensive  in  Sussex  County  in  basket  factories;  pine 
and  gum  mostly  used. 

Veneer  for  fruit  baskets — very  extensive  in  Sussex  County;  gum 
chiefly  used,  also  maple. 

Crating  and  boxes — very  extensive  in  Sussex  County;  pine  used 
mostly,  also  gum. 

Mine  props — very  extensive  in  Sussex  County ;  pine  used  mostly, 
also  oak. 

Fencing — posts  and  rails,  extensive  all  over  State ;  chestnut,  oak, 
heart  pine,  and  locust  used. 


14  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

Ship  knees — slight  in  Sussex  County ;  white  oak  used. 

Wagon  and  carriage  stock — slight ;  only  the  very  best  hickory  and 
white  oak  used. 

Bean  poles — very  small  straight  saplings  of  any  species  used,  es^ 
pecially  dogwood  and  hickory. 

Most  of  the  large  trees  cut  are  used  for  saw-timber,  although 
much  good-sized  stuff  goes  for  mine  props,  railroad  ties,  piles,  and  poles. 
The  lumber  manufactured  is  principally  building  material  of  all 
kinds,  dressed  and  rough,  and  is  used  almost  entirely  locally.  Railroad 
and  bridge  timbers  also  are  largely  manufactured. 

Tops  left  after  cutting  large  timber  for  sawlogs  and  other  pur- 
poses are  almost  always  utilized  for  cord  wood,  and  there  is  little  or  no 
waste.  Cordwood  brings  a  good  price  everywhere  in  Delaware,  and 
the  poorest  kinds  of  wood  material  can  be  disposed  of  at  a  profit. 

The  prices  given  below  indicate  the  excellent  market  for  forest 
products  in  the  State. 

Cordwood  brings  from  50  cents  to  $2  a  cord  on  the  stump,  and 
from  $3  to  $8  delivered,  with  an  average  price  of  $4  a  cord. 

The  prices  for  railroad  ties,  delivered,  are  as  follows :  White  oak 
No.  1,  70  cents,  and  No.  2,  55  cents ;  chestnut,  and  red  oak  No.  1,  55 
cents,  and  No.  2,  42  cents.  On  the  side  branches  of  the  railroad  spruce 
pine,  maple,  and  beech  ties  are  often  taken,  and  at  the  same  prices  as 
for  red  oak. 

Old  growth  white  oak  stumpage  brings  $10  to  $15  a  thousand  for 
butt  and  second  cuts  for  carriage  stock,  and  old  growth  hickory 
$20  to  $30. 

White  oak  railroad  dimension  stuff,  four  inches  square  and  up, 
and  six  feet  or  more  in  length,  brings  $25  a  thousand  delivered  at  the 
railroad,  and  red  oak  $18. 

Tulip  poplar  brings  $4.50  a  cord  peeled  and  delivered  at  the  rail- 
road for  pulp  wood,  and  sweet  gum  $3.50  to  $4. 

Sweet  gum,  for  basket  veneer,  brings  $9  to  $13  a  cord  delivered  at 
the  factory,  and  soft  maple  in  many  places  brings  the  same  price.  The 
logs  or  short  bolts  must  be  at  least  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small 
end. 

Chestnut  telephone  and  telegraph  poles  range  in  price  from  $1.25 
to  $10,  according  to  the  length,  and  must  be  cut,  peeled,  and  delivered. 
Poles  over  forty  feet  in  length  and  seven  inches  diameter  at  the  top 
end  bring  $5  and  up,  while  with  decreasing  length  the  price  is  lower. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  15 

Pine  brings  $3  and  oak  $2.50  a  ton,  green,  for  mine  props,  deliv- 
ered on  cars.  This  amounts  to  about  $12  a  cord.  The  props  are  ship- 
ped in  long  sticks  which  must  be  at  least  17  feet  in  length  and  8  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  center. 

Spruce  pine  for  charcoal  is  worth  50  cents  to  $1  on  the  stump.  It 
is  cheaper  to  haul  charcoal  than  cordwood,  and  so  where  this  pine  oc- 
curs a  long  distance  from  the  market,  it  is  cut  for  charcoal  rather  than 
for  cordwood. 

The  following  are  the  local  prices  per  thousand  board  feet  for  pine 
boards  delivered  at  the  factories,  or  at  railroad  shipping  points. 

Boards  f -inch  thick — 

Scrap  boards,  3  to  6  inches  wide .$11 

6  to  9       "         "    13  to  14 

9  and  over         "    15  to  16 

Boards  1  inch  thick- 
Common  ....    14 

No.  2   18 

No.  1  (clear  heart)   30 

The  common  and  lower  grades  of  pine  lumber  are  used  almost  en- 
tirely in  local  box  and  crate  factories,  while  the  better  grades  are  often 
shipped. 

Gum  boards  bring  locally  about  the  same  price  as  pine,  while  tulip 
poplar  brings  more.  Pine,  gum,  and  mixed  framing  bring  $16  a  thou- 
sand locally  at  the  mills. 

The  following  were  the  wholesale  selling  prices  per  thousand  feet 
to  the  retail  trade  in  Philadelphia,  on  June  1,  1907,  for  various  kinds 
of  lumber  which  to  some  extent  are  produced  in  Delaware : 

Chestnut,  $20  to  $50. 

Poplar,  $22.50  to  $56. 

White  oak,  quartered,  $34  to  $72  and  up. 

Oak,  plain,  red  and  white,  $23  to  $52. 

N.  C.  pine,  rough,  $12  to  $45. 

N.  C.  pine,  dressed,  $18.25  to  $49.75. 

It  pays  to  ship  only  the  very  best  grades  to  the  city,  because  of 
high  freight  rates.  The  rate  to  Philadelphia  from  Sussex  County  is 
from  $1.50  to  $2  a  ton  on  lumber  in  single  car  lots,  which  amounts  to 
$2.25  to  $4  a  thousand  for  pine,  and  from  $3  to  $6  a  thousand  for  hard- 
wood. Only  a  very  small  per  cent  of  the  lumber  manufactured  in  the 
State  is  of  a  sufficiently  high  grade  to  make  it  more  profitable  to  ship 
to  large  city  markets  than  to  sell  it  locally,  as  the  local  prices,  especially 


16  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

for  the  common  grades,  are  uniformly  good,  and  the  demand  is  greater 
than  the  supply.  Logs  and  lumber  are  commencing  to  be  shipped 
from  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  to  supply  box  factories  in  Dela- 
ware. 

The  freight  rates  on  cordwood  from  Sussex  County  to  Philadel- 
phia range  from  $1  to  $1.50  a  ton,  which  is  equivalent  to  $1.50  to  $2.50 
a  cord  for  pine,  and  from  $2  to  $3.50  a  cord  for  hardwoods.  Pine 
brings  $5  and  oak  $6  a  cord  wholesale  in  Philadelphia,  and  so  it  will 
usually  be  more  profitable  to  sell  cordwood  locally  at  $4  than  to  ship 
to  the  city.  Freight  rates  from  Kent  and  New  Castle  counties  to  Phila- 
delphia are  lower  than  from  Sussex,  and  cordwood  and  the  lower 
grades  of  lumber  can  more  often  be  profitably  shipped  to  city  markets. 

THE  FORESTS  OF  DELAWARE. 

Forest  Regions. 

There  are  three  general  forest  regions  distinguishable  in  Dela- 
ware: (1)  The  Piedmont  Plateau  hardwood  region,  the  outlines  of 
which  are  identical  with  that  portion  of  the  State  indicated  on  the  map 
as  belonging  to  the  Archean  geologic  formation.  About  15  per  cent  of 
the  area  of  this  region  is  wooded,  or  some  11,000  acres.  (2)  The 
Coastal  Plain  hardwood  region  extends  south  from  the  Piedmont 
region  to  Felton,  in  the  lower  part  of  Kent  County.  About  20  per  cent 
of  the  area  of  this  region  is  wooded,  or  some  95,000  acres.  (3)  The 
Coastal  Plain  mixed  pine  and  hardwood  region  comprises  the  whole  of 
Sussex  and  the  southern  third  of  Kent  County.  About  35  per  cent  of 
the  area  of  this  region  is  wooded,  or  some  245,000  acres. 

In  the  Piedmont  region  the  forests  consist  almost  entirely  of  wood- 
lots  less  than  50  acres  in  extent,  situated  on  steep  slopes  and  along 
water  courses,  in  places  difficult  to  cultivate.  There  are  two  general 
types  of  forest  in  this  region:  one  occurs  along  streams  and  in  ravines 
where  the  soil  is  uniformly  moist,  well  drained  and  fertile;  the  other 
occurs  on  slopes,  more  or  less  exposed,  and  with  drier  and  less  fertile 
soil.  The  first  has  tulip  poplar  as  the  characteristic  tree,  and  asso- 
ciated with  it  are  chestnut,  white,  pin  and  red  oaks,  red  maple,  white 
ash,  walnut,  sweet  and  black  gums,  beech,  basswood,  and  sycamore. 
Tree  growth  in  this  type  is  extremely  rapid  and  vigorous.  The  char- 
acteristic tree  of  the  slope  type  is  chestnut  with  white,  red  and  black 
oaks,  tulip  poplar,  hickory,  and  maple  as  the  most  common  associates. 
On  steep  and  rocky  slopes  in  the  northern  part  of  the  region  a  chestnut 
oak  type  sometimes  occurs,  with  rock,  or  chestnut,  oak  as  the  prevailing 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  17 

tree  and  with  other  oaks,  hickory,  and  chestnut  in  mixture.  Growth 
on  this  latter  type  is  much  slower  than  on  the  usual  slope  type,  of 
which  it  is  a  variation. 

In  the  Coastal  Plain  hardwood  region  there  are  a  few  tracts  of 
woodland  over  100  acres  in  extent,  but  the  forest  occurs  usually  in 
small  woodlots  of  20  acres  or  so  in  area.  There  are  two  general  forest 
types  distinguishable  in  this  region :  one  occurs  on  low,  flat,  wet  land, 
more  or  less  swampy,  and  the  other  on  better  drained  land  with  some 
little  variation  in  elevation  and  topography.  Sweet  gum  is  the  char- 
acteristic tree  of  the  former  type  which  is  usually  known  as  "gum 
swamp,"  and  red  maple,  tulip  poplar,  pin,  willow,  and  cow  oaks  are 
the  most  common  associates,  with  often  some  white  and  red  oak,  and 
chestnut  in  drier  portions  of  the  swamp.  White,  red  and  black  oaks 
are  the  characteristic  trees  found  on  the  better  drained  sites  which  may 
be  called  the  "oak  type;"  other  species  occurring  on  this  type  include 
hickory,  chestnut,  tulip  poplar,  sweet  and  black  gum,  red  maple,  and 
black  jack  oak,  with  sassafras  and  dogwood  as  undergrowth.  Dogwood 
and  blue  beech  are  very  common  as  undergrowth  in  the  swamp  type. 

The  mixed  pine  and  hardwood  region  on  the  Coastal  Plain  has 
nearly  two  and  a  half  times  the  wooded  area  of  the  other  two  forest 
regions  combined  and  so,  from  a  forestal  standpoint,  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  State.  The  forest  area  of  the  region  is  about  half 
in  large  tracts  over  100  acres  in  extent  and  half  in  smaller  woodlots. 
The  soil  averages  much  more  sandy,  and  the  land  is  poorer  than  in  the 
other  regions,  and  for  this  reason  a  smaller  per  cent  of  the  land  is 
under  cultivation.  Originally  there  was  very  little  pine  in  the  region 
and  the  same  types  prevailed  as  in  the  Coastal  hardwood  region.  Lum- 
bering the  forests  and  clearing  the  land  for  agriculture  have  greatly 
increased  the  amount  of  pine  and  extended  its  range  much  farther 
north.  There  are  large  areas  of  ' '  gum  swamp, ' '  and  also  considerable 
of  the  "oak  type"  in  this  region,  in  both  of  which  more  or  less  pine 
often  occurs  in  mixture  with  the  hardwoods. 

The  most  common  pine  type  is  a  pure  or  nearly  pure  growth  of 
loblolly.  Then  there  is  loblolly  pine  mixed  in  various  degrees  with 
hardwoods,  chiefly  oak,  and  with  short-leaf  and  spruce  pines.  There 
are  also  considerable  areas  of  pure  spruce  pine  in  the  northern  and 
western  portions  of  the  pine  region. 
New  Castle  County 

About  one-fourth  of  the  county  lies  in  the  Piedmont  Plateau  re- 
gion and  the  rest  in  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.  There  are  slightly 


18  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

over  40,000  acres  of  woodland  in  the  county,  the  largest  bodies  of  which 
are  on  Chestnut  and  Iron  Hills,  and  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  the 
county  below  the  railroad  branch  which  runs  from  Townsend,  Dela- 
ware, to  Massey,  Maryland.  There  is  also  a  large  area  of  woodland  be- 
tween Kirkwood  and  Glasgow  around  the  sources  of  Belltown  Run. 
Each  of  the  above  areas  forms  several  hundred  acres  of  continuous  for- 
est, but  outside  of  them  there  are  no  wooded  tracts  in  the  county  over 
100  acres  in  size,  and  nearly  all  the  woodlots  are  less  than  20  acres. 

The  forests  of  New  Castle  County  are  almost  exclusively  of  hard- 
woods, with  only  a  very  slight  mixture  of  spruce  pine  in  the  southeast- 
ern part,  and  with  scattering  red  cedar  throughout  the  county. 

In  the  Piedmont  region  the  wooded  areas  are  located  chiefly  on 
steep  hillsides  and  slopes  of  streams,  which  cannot  be  conveniently  cul- 
tivated. The  prevailing  species  are  chestnut,  red  and  white  oak,  tulip 
poplar,  and  hickory.  In  passing  from  the  Piedmont  region  to  the 
Coastal  Plain  there  is  a  decrease  in  the  occurrence  of  chestnut,  tulip 
poplar,  and  hickory,  and  an  increasing  amount  of  sweet  gum  and  soft 
maple.  The  steeper  and  better  drained  slopes  of  the  Piedmont  region 
are  adapted  to  poplar  and  chestnut,  while  the  more  level  Coastal  Plain 
is  highly  suited  to  gum  and  maple. 

Kent  County 

Kent  County  is  about  25  per  cent  wooded,  that  is,  there  are  nearly 
100,000  acres  of  woodland.  The  portion  east  of  the  main  line  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  and  north  of  Murderkill  Creek,  comprising 
slightly  over  one-third  the  area  of  the  county,  is  not  more  than  15  per 
cent  forested.  The  amount  of  woodland  increases  westward  from  the 
railroad  towards  the  Maryland  line.  Mispillion  Hundred,  in  the  south- 
western corner  of  Kent,  is  the  most  heavily  timbered  portion  of  the 
county,  and  is  about  40  per  cent  wooded.  In  the  northern  half  of  the 
county  the  forest  is  almost  exclusively  of  hardwoods,  but  in  the  south- 
ern half  pine  forms  an  important  part  of  the  forest.  Throughout  the 
county,  however,  hardwoods  are  decidedly  more  important  than  pine, 
although  the  latter  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance  and  amount  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  county. 

Sussex  County 

This  county  has  upwards  of  35  per  cent  of  its  area  wooded,  that  is, 
there  are  considerably  over  200,000  acres  of  woodland.  There  are  many 
continuous  bodies  of  woodland  over  100  acres  in  extent,  the  largest  of 
which  occur  in  Nanticoke,  Georgetown,  Dagsborough,  and  Gumborough 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  19 

Hundreds,  where  there  is  much  very  light  sandy  land,  and  also  con- 
siderable undrained  swamp  land.  There  are  considerable  areas,  es- 
pecially where  the  land  is  sandy  and  poor,  which  were  once  cultivated 
and  subsequently  abandoned  after  the  freeing  of  slaves  in  the  State. 
Such  areas  almost  always  became  seeded  up  to  a  thick  growth  of  pure 
pine,  and  these  stands  have  become  a  great  source  of  timber  supply  and 
are  of  immense  value.  They  are  cut  when  25  to  40  years  old,  and  the 
land  is  often  again  cleared  for  agriculture.  There  is  now  very  little 
old-field  growth  of  any  size  which  has  not  been  cut  over,  but  many 
promising  young  stands  are  constantly  springing  up. 

The  forests  of  Sussex  are  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  irregular 
and  uneven-aged  stands  both  of  pine  and  hardwoods.  Although  the 
large  areas  of  abandoned  farm  land  have  grown  up  mostly  to  regular, 
even-aged  stands  of  loblolly,  yet  these  have  since  been  extensively 
culled,  and,  for  the  most  part,  existing  stands  which  are  uniform  in  age 
and  stock,  are  young  and  immature.  Originally  the  forests  of  Sussex 
County  were  almost  exclusively  of  hardwoods,  but  by  culling  and  clear- 
ing them  pine  has  gradually  been  established  in  every  part  of  the 
county,  owing  to  a  superior  reproductive  power,  and  it  is  now  a  source 
of  greater  money  returns  than  the  hardwoods. 
Condition  of  the  Forests 

There  is  practically  no  virgin  forest  in  Delaware.  The  forests  con- 
sist, for  the  most  part,  of  second-growth  stands  less  than  sixty  years  in 
age,  the  original  growth  having  been  long  since  removed,  and  only  oc- 
casional decrepit  veterans  of  inferior  quality  left  standing.  Forest 
growth  all  over  the  State,  except  in  portions  of  the  extreme  northern 
part,  is  very  rapid,  and  trees  reach  merchantable  size  at  a  comparative- 
ly early  age.  There  is  very  little  pine  over  fifty  years  in  age,  and  it  is 
usually  cut  before  it  is  forty,  as  it  reaches  merchantable  dimensions  for 
saw-timber  in  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  years.  In  some  cases  the  stands 
are  even-aged  and  regular,  as  where  the  previous  one  was  clear  cut,  or 
where  pine  has  taken  possession  of  idle  farm  land.  But  more  often  the 
forest  is  irregular,  with  trees  of  all  ages  from  young  seedlings  to  scat- 
tering deteriorating  veterans. 

This  irregular  condition  has  been  brought  about  by  haphazard 
culling  and  lack  of  attention.  Ordinarily,  woodlot  owners  cut  when 
material  for  different  purposes  is  needed,  with  little  or  no  considera- 
tion for  the  future  good  of  the  stand,  and  the  trees  removed  are  usually 
those  most  easily  available.  In  lumbering  in  the  past  the  best  material 
was  usually  cut,  and  trees  of  poor  quality  and  inferior  species  were 


20  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

left,  which  suppressed  any  valuable  second  growth  which  might  spring 
up.  It  is  impossible  to  get  the  best  development  of  trees  in  irregular 
selection  forests,  as  the  dominant  trees  have  too  much  room  and  de- 
velop broad,  spreading  branches  which  retard  the  development  of  the 
smaller  trees  beneath  and  cause  them  to  grow  crooked.  Clean  cutting 
is  becoming  more  common,  however,  since  a  good  market  for  cordwood 
has  lately  developed,  so  that  now  where  it  is  done  the  inferior  and  de- 
fective trees  are  cut  with  the  straight  and  sound. 

The  trees  composing  the  forests  of  the  State  are  about  half  sprout 
and  half  seedling  in  origin.  Chestnut  and  the  different  species  of  oak 
are  usually  sprouts  from  old  trees  removed;  tulip  poplar,  hickory, 
sweet  gum  and  red  maple  are  more  often  of  seedling  origin,  while  the 
conifers  are  from  seed. 

There  have  been  no  extensive  forest  fires  in  Delaware,  as  the 
wooded  areas  are  so  cut  up  by  cleared  agricultural  land  and  roads  as 
to  make  large  fires  impossible.  Fires  over  small  areas  of  woodland  oc- 
casionally occur,  but  the  damage  from  this  source  has  been  relatively 
slight,  and  has  been  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  destruction  of  un- 
dergrowth and  reproduction  with  little  injury  to  standing  timber.  For- 
est owners  in  the  State,  as  a  class,  are  diligent  in  keeping  fire  from 
their  woods. 

There  has  been  no  extensive  injury  to  timber  by  attacks  of  insects 
or  from  fungous  diseases.  The  forests  throughout  are  uniformly  in 
a  healthy  and  vigorous  condition,  although  lacking  in  regularity  of 
stock.  Single  trees  are  often  wind  thrown  or  broken,  and  some  damage 
is  done  by  the  grazing  of  cattle,  but  injury  from  either  of  these  sources 
is  not  extensive. 

The  reproduction  following  the  removal  of  old  trees  is  usually  ex- 
cellent. In  the  pine  region,  lumbered  and  burned  over  forest  land  and 
idle,  cleared  land  become  quickly  seeded  up  to  young  pine.  In  the 
hardwood  region  chestnut  and  oak  usually  sprout  vigorously,  especial- 
ly after  clear  cutting,  while  most  of  the  other  hardwood  species  repro- 
duce well  from  seed.  There  is  often  much  hardwood  reproduction 
springing  up  under  cover  of  old  stands,  which  is  destroyed,  for  the 
most  part,  when  the  old  trees  are  cut,  but  it  generally  sprouts  again 
and  forms  part  of  the  new  stand.  Unfortunately  there  is  often  a  heavy 
undergrowth  of  worthless  shrubs,  which  interferes  greatly  with  the  re- 
production of  desirable  species,  and  which  should  be  destroyed  when  it 
is  desired  to  establish  seedlings  of  valuable  species.  As  a  rule,  a  fair 
amount  of  natural  reproduction  can  be  secured  with  little  or  no  extra 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  21 

trouble,  whenever  it  is  desired  to  remove  a  mature  stand  and  establish 
a  new  one. 

FOREST  TREES  OF  DELAWARE. 

North  of  Dover  the  trees  found  in  the  State  are  almost  exclusively 
hardwoods.  South  of  Dover  pines  commence  to  form  an  important 
part  of  the  forest,  and  in  Sussex  County  they  are  as  abundant  as  the 
hardwoods.  The  following  are  lists  of  species  indigenous  in  the  State, 
separated  in  groups  according  to  commercial  importance,  and  with  re- 
marks on  occurrence. 


22 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


23 


COMMERCIAL  TREES  OF  INFREQUENT  OCCURENCE 


Common  Name 
Butternut 
Black  walnut 
Bitternut  hickory 
Pignut  hickory 
Post  oak 
Chestnut  oak 
Swamp  white  oak 
Bartram  oak 
Spanish 
Sycamore 
Black  cherry 
Black  locust 
Sugar  maple 
White  elm 
Basswood 
Black  gum 
Black  ash 
Red  ash 
White  ash 
Pitch  pine 
Shortleaf  pine 
Red  cedar 
White  cedar 
Bald  cypress 


Common  Name 
Black  willow 
Largetooth  aspen 
Black  birch 
Red  birch 
Hornbeam 
Blue  beech 
Barren  oak 
Black  jack  oak 
Slippery  elm 
Hackberry 
Sassafras 
Red  mulberry 
Sweet  magnolia 
Papaw 
Witch  hazel 
Serviceberry 
Scarlet  haw 


Botanical  Name 
Juglans  cinerea 
Juglans  nigra 
Hicoria  minima 
Hicoria  glabra 
Quercus  minor 
Quercus  prinus 
Quercus  platanoides 
Quercus  heterophylla 
Quercus  digitata 
Platinus  occidentalis 
Prunus  serotina 
Eobinia  pseudacacia 
Acer  saccharum 
Ulnus  americana 
Tilia  americana 
Nyssa  sylvatica 
Fraxinus  nigra 
Fraxinus  pennsylvanica 
Fraxinus  americana 
Pinus  rigida 
Pinus  echinata 
Juniperus  virginiana 
CJiamaecyparis  thyoides 
Taxodium  distichum 


Occurrence 
In  Piedmont  region 
Throughout  the  State 
In  Piedmont  region 
Throughout  the  State 
In  Piedmont  region 


C  (  It 


Throughout  the  State 


Mostly  in  Piedmont  regioii 
Throughout  the  State 
In  Piedmont  region 
Throughout  the  State 

In  the  Piedmont  region 

nit         11  it 

Mostly  in  the  Piedmont 
Mostly  in  the  pine  region 
Southern  half  of  State 
Throughout  the  State 
Extreme  southern  portion  of  State 


INFERIOR  COMMERCIAL  TREES 


Botanical  Name 

Salix  nigra 

Populus  grandidentata 
Betula  lenta 
Betula  nigra 
Ostrya  virginiana 
Carpinus  caroliniana 
Quercus  pumila 
Quercus  marilandica 
Ulmus  pubescens 
Celtis  occidentalis 
Sassafras  sassafras 
Morus  rubra 
Magnolia  glauca 
Asimina  triloba 
Hamamelis  virginiana 
Amelanchier  canadensis 
Crataegus  coccinea 


Occurrence 

Very  common  in  marshes 
Rare  in  the  State 
Rare 
Rare 

Occurs  in  Piedmont  region 
Frequent 

Limited  in  occurrence 

n     11         11 


Very  frequent 
Fairly  common 

Limited  in  occurrence 

11     if         11 

Mostly  in  the  Piedmont 

11        (i  i  { 

Limited  in  occurrence 


24  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

Eedbud  Cercis  canadensis  Not  frequent 

Coffeetree  Gymnocladus  dioicus  Limited  in  occurrence 

Honey  locust  Gleditsia  triacanthos  Not  frequent 

Hoptree  Ptelia  trifoliata  Limited  in  occurrence 

Ailanthus  Ailanthus  glandulosa  Not  frequent 

Holly  Ilexopaca  "         " 

Silver  maple  Acer  saccharinum  il         li 

Boxelder  Acer  negundo  "         " 

Dogwood  Cornus  florida  Very  common 

Persimmon  Diospyros  virginiana  Frequent 

SHEUBS  AND  VINES  FOUNT*  IN  THE  STATE 

Sheepberry  Blueberries  Wild  yam  root 

Baccharis  Sweet  elder  Climbing  hempweed 

Smooth  alder  Arrowwood  Mountain  laurel 

Wild  rose  Poison  ivy  Rhododendron 

Black  chokeberry  Bittersweet  Benzoin 

Sweet  pepperbrush  Clematis  Nannyberry 

Azalea  Honeysuckle  Wax  myrtle 

Sheep  laurel  Trumpet  creeper  Prickly  ash 

Black  huckleberry  American  ivy  Staghorn  sumac 

IMPORTANT  COMMERCIAL  TREES 

Pine 

The  four  species  of  pine  in  Delaware,  in  order  of  their  importance, 

are :  loblolly,  spruce,  shortleaf ,  and  pitch.  Loblolly  and  pitch  pines  are 
not  distinguished  locally  and  are  called  long-chat  or  foxtail  pine.  Short- 
leaf  generally  goes  by  the  name  of  "old  growth"  pine,  but  large  clear- 
boled  trees  of  loblolly  go  by  the  same  name.  Shortleaf  and  spruce  pine 
when  young  are  usually  not  distinguished  locally,  and  both  are  called 
indiscriminately  spruce  pine  or  *  *  short-leaved ' '  pine.  In  other  States 
spruce  pine  is  usually  called  jack  or  scrub  pine. 

Loblolly  pine  is  considered  at  length  in  another  portion  of  this  re- 
port. Pitch  pine  is  often  hard  to  distinguish  from  loblolly;  both  spe- 
cies have  needles  four  to  eight  inches  long  and  three  to  four  in  a  sheath, 
but  pitch  pine  has  a  decidedly  broad  ovoid  cone,  while  the  cones  of 
loblolly  are  oblong  and  long.  Pitch  pine  occurs  very  infrequently  in 
Delaware  and  usually  as  single  isolated  trees  in  stands  of  loblolly ;  its 
most  important  occurrence  in  the  State  is  along  the  seaboard  in  the 
southwest. 

Spruce  and  shortleaf  pines  may  be  distinguished  from  pitch  and 
loblolly  by  the  length  of  their  needles,  which  in  the  case  of  both  of  the 
former  is  only  one  to  three  inches;  and  they  also  have  much  smaller 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


25 


cones  than  the  latter  two.  Spruce  pine  has  two  needles  to  a  sheath, 
while  shortleaf  has  usually  three,  though  sometimes  only  two ;  and  the 
needles  of  the  latter  are  more  straight  and  rigid,  lack  a  certain  char- 
acteristic twist  of  the  former,  and  on  the  average  are  also  slightly 
longer. 

Shortleaf  pine  is  a  poor  reproducer,  so  that  there  is  very  little  sec- 
ond growth  of  the  species,  and  its  occurrence  as  compared  with  loblolly 
or  spruce  pine  is  rapidly  decreasing.  It  has  about  the  same  rate  of, 
growth  as  spruce  pine,  which  is  much  slower  than  loblolly  and  pitch. 
Spruce  pine  is  an  excellent  reproducer,  and  quickly  seeds  up  vacant 
farm  land,  where  seed  trees  of  the  species  are  nearby.  There  are  large 
areas  of  pure  spruce  pine  stands  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State, 
which  have  come  up  on  idle  farm  land.  The  following  table  shows  the 
development  of  such  stands  on  similar  sites  in  Maryland. 

AVERAGE    GROWTH    OF    PURE    WELL-STOCKED    STANDS    OF 
SPRUCE  PINE  ON  OLD  FIELDS  IN  MARYLAND. 


Total  No.  Trees 

Average  Diame- 

Average 

Age  in 

Dominant  and 

No.  of  Cords 

ter  Breasthigh 

Height  of 

Years 

Suppressed 

Per  Acre 

of  Dominant 

Dominant 

Per  Acre 

Trees. 

Trees. 

Inches 

Feet 

5 

0.4 

6 

10 

3,790 

2.6* 

2.5 

17 

15 

2,510 

12.8 

3.8 

26 

20 

1,470 

20.1 

4.8 

33 

25 

885 

25.1 

5.7 

40 

30 

625 

29.9 

6.5 

46 

35 

490 

34.5 

7.1 

51 

40 

420 

39.0 

7.9 

55 

45 

380 

42.9 

8.4 

59 

50 

370 

46.5 

8.9 

63 

55 





9.6 



60 





10.1 

— 

*To  reduce  to  cubic  feet  multiply  by  100. 

A  comparison  of  the  rate  of  growth  of  spruce  pine,  as  given  in  the 
above  table,  with  that  of  lobolly  pine,  as  given  on  page  55,  shows  up  de- 
cidedly in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  conclusion,  then,  especially  since 
loblolly  is  the  more  valuable  timber  tree,  is  that  after  cutting  mature 
stands  of  spruce  pine  it  will  be  better  to  encourage  loblolly,  and  even  to 
sow  it,  rather  than  allow  spruce  pine  to  reproduce  itself  naturally.  It 
will  pay,  however,  to  allow  immature  stands  of  spruce  pine  to  grow  un- 


26  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

til  ripe.   Wherever  scattering  loblolly  trees  occur  in  spruce  pine  stands, 
they  should  be  left  for  seeding  purposes  when  the  stand  is  finally  cut. 

Oak 

White  and  red  oak  are  the  two  most  important  of  the  fourteen 
species  of  oak  found  in  Delaware.  Both  of  them  occur  in  every  part  of 
the  State  and  in  all  forest  types.  White  oak  is  extremely  slow  but  very 
persistent  in  its  growth,  and  can  endure  shade  better  than  other  species 
of  oak.  Red  oak  on  the  other  hand  is  a  very  rapid  growing  species  but 
is  intolerant,  not  being  able  to  exist  long  under  the  shade  of  other 
trees.  Both  species  reproduce  well  by  sprouts,  especially  the  red  oak, 
and  most  of  the  second  growth  is  of  sprout  origin.  As  already  stated, 
the  market  prices  for  white  oak  are  higher  than  for  red  oak,  yet  for 
commercial  timber  growing  the  latter  is  preferable  because  it  reaches 
merchantable  size  at  a  much  earlier  age.  In  spite  of  its  high  value 
white  oak  is  too  slow  growing  to  make  it  profitable  for  forest  manage- 
ment, and  if  planting  is  considered,  red  or  pin  oak  should  be  used. 
However,  there  are  large  quantities  of  immature  white  oak  throughout 
the  State  which,  as  a  rule,  should  be  allowed  to  reach  merchantable  size, 
but  reproduction  of  the  species  should  not  be  especially  encouraged. 
Through  its  persistence  white  oak  will  always  continue  an  important 
tree  in  the  forests  of  Delaware. 

On  the  "swamp  type"  cow  (or  swamp  chestnut),  pin,  and  willow 
(locally  called  "peach")  oaks  take  the  place,  to  a  great  extent,  of  white 
and  red  oaks.  Except  for  its  leaf,  cow  oak  looks  like  white  oak,  and 
the  quality  of  the  wood  is  the  same ;  it  is  more  rapid  in  growth,  how- 
ever. Pin  and  peach  oak  are  both  very  rapid  growers  but  the  wood  of 
the  latter  is  exceedingly  brash  and  inferior,  while  pin  oak  produces  the 
same  quality  of  lumber  as  red  oak.  Pin  oak  is  the  best  species  of  oak  to 
encourage  in  wet  situations,  and  trees  interfering  with  its  reproduction 
and  development  should  be  cut. 

Scarlet  and  black  oaks  occur  more  on  better  drained  soils,  and  in 
mixture  with  white  and  red  oaks.  The  lumber  cut  from  them  goes  on 
the  market  as  red  oak,  but  neither  is  as  desirable  as  red  oak  for  com- 
mercial timber  growing,  as  the  rate  of  growth  is  slower  and  the  quality 
of  the  timber  not  so  good. 

Chestnut 

Next  to  loblolly  pine  chestnut  is  the  most  profitable  species  for 
forest  management  in  Delaware.  It  does  best  on  well-drained  soils,  me- 
dium to  heavy,  and  does  not  flourish  in  wet  swamps,  or  on  light  dry 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


27 


sandy  soils.  It  is  much  better  adapted  to  the  northern  half  of  the  State 
than  to  the  pine  region,  and  is  even  to  be  preferred  to  loblolly  pine  in 
this  northern  section,  where,  in  fact,  loblolly  does  not  occur  naturally. 
Chestnut  is  the  best  species  to  encourage  in  the  farmer's  woodlot,  as  the 
wood  is  excellent  for  posts  and  rails,  and  makes  good  firewood.  When 
grown  for  commercial  purposes  it  brings  the  most  profit  in  ties  and 
poles.  (See  figure  1.)  The  table  below  shows  the  average  age,  height, 
and  yield  (either  in  ties  or  poles)  of  trees  of  different  diameters  of 
sprout  origin,  based  on  measurements  taken  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
western  peninsula  of  Maryland. 

AGE,  HEIGHT  AND  YIELD  OF  CHESTNUT  SPROUTS  OF  DIF- 
FERENT DIAMETERS*. 


Size  of  Pole  Per  Tree 

ties  per 

Length  of 

Diameter  at 

Diameter 

Age 

Height 

tree. 

pole. 

the  top,  out- 

breasthigh 

Volume 

side  bark 

Inches 

Years 

Feet 

Ties 

Feet 

Inches 

10 

33 

61 

1 

11 

38 

67 

2 

25 

8.1 

12 

43 

72 

3 

30 

8.2 

13 

48 

76 

3 

35 

8.1 

14 

54 

80 

4 

35 

8.7 

15 

59 

83 

4 

40 

8.3 

16 

65 

85 

5 

40 

9.0 

17 

72 

88 

5 

45 

8.5 

18 

79 

90 

5 

45 

9.0 

19 

89 

92 

5 

50 

8.4 

20 

103 

94 

5 

50 

8.8 

*Taken  from  "Chestnut  in  Southern  Maryland,"  Bulletin  No.  53, 
Forest  Service. 

The  growth  of  chestnut  seedlings  is  very  much  slower  than  that  of 
sprouts  for  the  first  thirty  years  or  so,  after  which  seedlings  grow  the 
faster ;  but  seedlings  are  usually  over  ninety  years  old  before  they  at- 
tain the  same  dimensions  as  sprouts  of  a  like  age.  Chestnut  reproduces 
itself  by  sprouts  better  than  any  other  species,  and  most  chestnut 
trees  in  Delaware  are  of  sprout  origin.  It  can  almost  always  be  satis- 
factorily reproduced  in  this  manner,  and  planting  only  should  be  re- 
sorted to  when  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  species  in  places  where  pre- 
viously it  did  not  exist.  In  order  to  get  satisfactory  sprout  reproduc- 
tion the  mature  tree  should  be  cut  before  its  sixtieth  year,  and  the 


28 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


Fig.  1.    Group  of  Chestnut  Sprouts,  which  will  make  excellent  poles. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  29 

stand  should  always  be  cut  clean  so  that  the  sprouts  will  have  complete 
light  for  their  development. 

Tulip  Poplar 

An  important  tree  occurring  throughout  the  State  and  in  all  the 
forest  types,  but  more  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  half  of  the 
State  is  the  tulip  poplar.  It  occurs  usually  singly  or  in  small  patches 
or  groups,  and  never  forms  extensive  pure  stands.  It  is  the  most  rapid- 
growing  of  the  hardwoods,  and  reproduces  itself  readily  by  seed  wher- 
ever the  stand  is  open,  as  after  clear  cutting ;  and  it  also  sprouts  vigor- 
ously from  the  stump  up  to  the  time  that  the  old  tree  has  about  reached 
its  sixtieth  year.  Trees  fifteen  inches  and  up  in  diameter  are  extreme- 
ly valuable  for  lumber ;  those  10  to  15  inches  can  be  profitably  used  for 
rotary-cut  veneer  for  fruit  baskets,  and  also  sawed  into  box  boards; 
and  those  under  10  inches  bring  $4.50  a  cord  for  pulpwood  peeled 
and  delivered  at  the  railroad.  (See  figure  2.)  Tulip  poplar  may  be 
classed  with  loblolly  pine,  chestnut,  and  red  oak,  as  an  extremely  de- 
sirable species  for  commercial  timber  growing.  It  is  poor  economy  to 
cut  the  small  poles  for  pulpwood,  except  where  the  stand  needs  thin- 
ning, as  it  is  much  more  profitable  to  allow  them  to  grow  to  veneer  or 
saw-timber  size. 


30 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


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FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


31 


Fig.  2.    Tulip  Poplar  Stand  of  Sprout  Origin.    Former  Stand  was  cut  clean  for  pulpwood. 


32 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


CONTENTS  OF  SECOND  GROWTH  YELLOW  POPLAR  IN  BOARD 

FEET  BY  THE  SCRIBNER  LOG  RULE. 

Fairfax  County,  Virginia. 


Diam- 

Height of  Trees  —  Feet 

Diameter 

eter 

Stump 

Inside 

Total 

Breast- 

50   60   70   80   90   100 

Height 

Bark 

Basis 

high 

of  Top 

Inches 

Volume  —  Board  Feet 

Feet 

Inches 

Trees 

7 

7 

12 

16 

1.3 

5.9 

33 

8 

11 

17 

23 

29 

1.3 

5.9 

52 

9 

17 

25 

32 

41 

48 



1.4 

6.0 

69 

10 

25 

35 

45 

56 

67 

78 

1.4 

6.1 

00 

11 

36 

48 

61 

74 

88 

100 

1.4 

6.2 

73 

12 

50 

65 

80 

94 

110 

123 

1.5 

6.3 

56 

13 

66 

84 

101 

117 

134 

148 

1.5 

6.4 

41 

14 



106 

124 

142 

160 

177 

1.6 

6.5 

24 

15 



129 

150 

172 

191 

212 

1.7 

6.6 

20 

16 





179 

202 

225 

250 

1.7 

6.7 

25 

17 

210 

236 

264 

288 

1.8 

6.8 

11 

18 







274 

304 

328 

1.9 

7.0 

7 

19 







318 

346 

374 

2.0 

7.1 

6 

20 

395 

428 

2.1 

7.2 

477 

This  table  was  prepared  by  W.  W.  Ashe. 

Sweet  Gum 

This  species  is  found  in  wet  situations  all  over  the  State,  but  oc- 
curs most  abundantly  in  the  gum  swamps  of  the  Coastal  Plain  region 
where  it  is  decidedly  a  prevailing  species.  (See  figure  3.)  Trees  un- 
der 10  inches  in  diameter  are  of  little  value  for  anything,  not  even  for 
fuel,  though  lately  gum  is  beginning  to  be  substituted  for  tulip  poplai 
for  pulpwood.  Trees  10  inches  and  up  bring  excellent  prices  in  Dela- 
ware for  veneering  purposes,  as  gum  is  the  chief  species  used  for  straw- 
berry boxes  and  peach  baskets.  The  species  reproduces  itself  fairly 
well  both  from  seed  and  by  sprouts  after  clear  cutting ;  it  always  de- 
mands full  sunlight  for  its  best  reproduction  and  development.  As  a 
tree  for  commercial  timber  growing  it  is  fair,  but  not  in  the  same  class 
with  loblolly  pine  and  tulip  poplar,  and  where  artificial  reproduction 
is  to  be  resorted  to  one  of  these  more  valuable  species  should  be  used. 
However,  wherever  sweet  gum  grows  naturally  as  in  gum  swamps,  it  is 
a  profitable  species  to  allow  to  grow  to  merchantable  size.  The  follow- 
ing table  indicates  the  rate  of  growth  in  diameter  of  dominant  sweet 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


33 


gum  trees,  which  have  enjoyed  plenty  of  growing  space  during  their 
entire  life.* 


Fig.  3. 

Old  growth  Gum  Swamp. 

Diameter 
Breasthigh 
inches 

Age 
in 
years 

5 

14 

6 

17 

7 

20 

8 

23 

9 

26 

10 

30 

11 

34 

12 

38 

13 

42 

14 

46 

15 

50 

16 

55 

17 

60 

18 

65 

19 

70 

20 

75 

*Note:    Taken  from  Bulletin  58  of  the  Forest  Service,    based   on   measurements 
taken  on  hardwood  bottomland  in  South  Carolina. 


34  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

Mockernut  Hickory 

This  is  the  most  common  species  of  hickory  occurring  in  Delaware, 
and  is  found  very  sparingly  on  all  types  and  more  frequently  in  the 
northern  half  of  the  State.  It  is  not  much  faster  growing  than  white 
oak,  but  the  quality  and  value  of  the  wood  make  it  a  very  desirable 
tree  to  have  growing  in  woodlots,  to  a  limited  extent.  However,  it  is 
not  to  be  recommended  as  a  profitable  species  for  commercial  timber- 
growing  because  not  sufficiently  rapid  in  growth. 

Red  Maple 

This  tree  occurs  most  frequently  in  moist  situations,  especially  in 
gum  swamps.  A  very  large  per  cent,  of  the  mature  trees  are  only  good 
for  firewood,  as  they  are  too  defective  to  cut  for  veneer  or  flooring,  for 
which  purposes  maple  is  much  used  when  sound.  The  tree  reproduces 
very  well  both  from  seed  and  by  sprouts,  but  it  is  not  a  desirable  tree 
to  encourage,  and  should  always  be  eliminated,  as  far  as  possible,  from 
future  stands  in  order  to  make  room  for  more  desirable  species. 

FOREST  MANAGEMENT  BY  PRIVATE  OWNERS. 

There  are  two  large  problems  confronting  private  owners  in  Dela- 
ware: 

(1)  Management  of  woodlots  as  necessary  parts  of  all  well- 
equipped  farms,  and  which  occupy,  for  the  most  part,  valuable  agri- 
cultural land. 

(2)  Management  of  timber  tracts  located  on  poorer  and  cheaper 
land,  where  timber-growing  as  a  business  will  be  profitable.     These 
tracts  are  confined  chiefly  to  southern  Delaware,  where  there  are  large 
areas  of  comparatively  cheap  land.    Wherever  land  can  be  purchased 
in  the  State  for  $15  or  less  per  acre,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  timber-grow- 
ing, under  proper  forest  management,  will  pay  a  good  rate  of  interest. 
Loblolly  pine  is  undoubtedly  the  most  profitable  species  to  grow,  and 
other  desirable  trees  are  chestnut,  tulip  poplar,  red  and  pin  oaks,  and 
sweet  gum.    Forest  management  for  timber  tracts  should  consist  in  se- 
curing a  well-stocked  stand  of  desirable  species  to  take  the  place  of  the 
mature  one  removed ;  the  utilization  of  dying,  suppressed,  and  inferior 
trees  in  immature  stands  in  the  form  of  improvement  cuttings;  and 
the  protection  of  the  stand  from  fire.    As  a  rule,  the  old  stand  should 
be  clear  cut  when  mature,  and  the  succeeding  stand  should  be  even- 
aged,  if  possible,  because  such  a  stand  will  show  the  best  development. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  35 

The  excellent  market  for  timber  products  makes  the  care  of  a  forest 
and  the  attention  to  forest  management  a  sound  business  proposition. 

Management  of  Woodlcts 

General  Discussion. — The  desirability  of  every  farm  having  a 
woodlot  is  generally  recognized.  It  is  important  that  every  farmer 
should  regard  his  woodlot  in  the  nature  of  a  permanent  and  necessary 
investment,  and  as  a  result  he  will  usually  give  it  the  proper  amount 
of  care  and  attention.  The  more  valuable  the  land  which  the  woodlot 
occupies,  the  greater  should  be  the  returns  in  forest  products ;  and  the 
more  important  it  is  for  the  owner  to  keep  the  woodlot  well  stocked  so 
that  it  will  produce  the  greatest  yield  on  the  smallest  possible  area. 

Woodlot  management  should  consist  primarily  in  establishing  and 
maintaining  a  fully-stocked  stand  of  desirable  species  with  the  least 
financial  outlay.  Secondarily,  comes  the  protection  and  improvement 
of  the  stand,  especially  by  judicious  thinning,  until  ripe  for  final  cut- 
ting. 

A  forest  is  established  (1)  naturally  by  seed  from  old  treees,  or  by 
sprouts  from  stumps  of  cut  trees;  (2)  artificially  by  sowing  or  plant- 
ing; (3)  by  a  combination  of  natural  and  artificial  methods.  Sowing 
or  planting  necessitates  a  financial  outlay,  while  natural  reproduction 
does  not.  It  is  advisable,  however,  to  resort  to  artificial  methods  where 
it-  is  not  possible  to  procure  a  good  stand  by  natural  means. 

Whenever  timber  is  needed  from  the  woodlot  it  is  important  that 
the  cutting  be  made  with  reference  to  its  future  good.  Under  proper 
forest  management  all  material  removed  is  usually  either  in  the  nature 
of  improvement  cuttings,  by  which  the  stand  is  left  in  better  growing 
shape ;  or  final  cuttings,  where  it  is  the  intention  to  remove  the  stand 
with  a  view  of  reproducing  it.  Haphazard  cutting  of  the  best  trees 
without  regard  for  the  condition  of  those  left  is  only  warranted  in 
cases  where  a  great  deal  is  to  be  gained  financially  by  such  a  method. 
In  almost  every  case  in  Delaware,  however,  it  will  pay  to  consider  the 
future  stand  and  not  to  sacrifice  its  good  for  the  sake  of  immediate  re- 
turns. 

Establishing  New  Stands. — The  importance  of  establishing  fully- 
stocked  stands  of  the  most  desirable  species  cannot  be  emphasized  too 
much.  It  is  good  economy  that  woodlots  on  valuable  farm  land  be 
made  to  average,  if  possible,  two  cords  per  acre  a  year  in  growth,  in- 
stead of  less  than  one,  as  is  often  the  case  under  ordinary  methods  of 
treatment.  Most  of  the  woodlots  in  the  State  are  understocked  and  in 


36  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

poor  growing  shape,  due  to  the  haphazard  cutting  of  trees  of  different 
kinds,  as  needed.  To  have  anything  like  a  fully-stocked  woodlot  it  will 
be  necessary  to  clean  cut  a  small  portion  of  the  present  irregular  stand 
each  year  instead  of  making  selection  cuttings  where  most  convenient ; 
only  rapidly  deteriorating,  dying,  and  dead  trees  should  be  removed  in 
other  parts  of  the  woodlot.  Much  hardwood  sprout  growth  and  some 
seedlings  will  naturally  spring  up  after  clean  cutting.  It  will  be  best, 
however,  always  to  supplement  the  natural  reproduction  with  some 
sowing  or  planting  of  valuable  species  to  fill  up  gaps  and  to  improve 
the  subsequent  quantity  and  quality  production  of  the  woodlot. 

The  species  to  be  most  favored  in  establishing  new  stands  especial- 
ly where  any  sowing  or  planting  is  to  be  done  are  chestnut,  red  oak, 
(pin  oak  in  moist  to  wet  situations)  and  tulip  poplar.  It  is  also  well  to 
have  a  limited  amount  of  white  oak  and  hickory,  because  of  the  fine 
quality  of  their  wood,  but  both  are  too  slow  growing  to  be  allowed 
much  space  in  the  woodlot.  Chestnut  and  oak  reproduction  will  usual- 
ly have  to  be  either  produced  from  sprouts,  or  artificially  established, 
as  natural  seedling  reproduction  from  these  species  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain.  Tulip  poplar  can  be  relied  on  for  natural  seedling  reproduc- 
tion after  clean  cutting,  provided  one  or  more  seed -trees  are  left  per 
acre ;  it  also  reproduces  well  by  sprouts  up  to  its  sixtieth  year.  Hick- 
ory reproduces  itself  well  by  natural  seeding,  and  like  tulip  poplar 
sprouts  well  if  cut  before  its  sixtieth  year  also. 

Dogwood,  ironwood,  and  red  maple  should  be  eliminated  at  the 
start,  as  far  as  possible,  or  held  sufficiently  in  check  so  as  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  growth  of  valuable  species,  for  as  undergrowth  they  do  no 
harm. 

In  some  cases  where  there  is  no  woodlot  to  the  farm,  it  will  be  a 
wise  policy  for  the  owner  to  establish  one  by  planting  or  sowing  on  a 
portion  of  the  cleared  land.  In  other  cases,  where  there  is  a  woodlot 
already,  the  soil  on  a  certain  cleared  area  may  have  become  worn  out, 
and  it  may  be  best  to  plant  it  to  trees  and  clear  up  for  farm  crops  a 
portion  of  the  woodlot  area.  Artificially  grown  stands  have  certain  ad- 
vantages over  those  grown  by  natural  means,  because  the  quantity  and 
quality  yield  of  forest  produce  is  higher,  since  the  kind  of  trees 
their  spacing,  and  their  manner  of  association  can  be  better  regulated, 
and  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  stand 's  best  development  thus  ob- 
tained. The  species  to  be  recommended  for  planting  on  cultivated 
land  include  those  already  given — chestnut,  red  and  pin  oak,  and  tulip 
poplar — and  in  addition,  hardy  catalpa,  and  black  locust.  Catalpa 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  37 

should  only  be  planted  on  medium  to  heavy,  well-drained  soils  in  the 
northern  half  of  the  State,  and  black  locust  on  sandy  to  medium  soils 
with  fair  drainage. 

In  parts  of  Delaware  where  the  country  is  practically  all  cleared 
up  and  under  cultivation,  it  will  often  be  advisable  to  plant  trees  to 
serve  as  shelterbelts,  as  well  as  for  timber  supply,  along  roads  and 
edges  of  fields;  and  also  to  plant  windbreaks  for  houses  and  stables. 
Black  locust  is  a  good  tree  for  roadside  planting.  European  larch  is  a 
rapid  growing  tree,  not  fastidious  in  regard  to  soil,  with  strong,  heavy, 
and  durable  wood,  excellent  for  fuel,  fence  posts,  and  ties,  and  is  to  be 
recommended  for  shelterbelt  and  windbreak  planting  in  preference  to 
Norway  spruce  or  white  pine. 


38 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  39 

Care  of  Stands. — The  care  of  stands  once  established,  and  until 
ripe  for  final  cutting1,  constitutes  an  important  part  of  woodlot  man- 
agement. It  includes  mainly  improvement  thinnings  and  protection 
from  fire.  The  former  can  be  made  to  pay  for  themselves,  and  in  fact 
are  a  source  of  good  net  returns,  while  the  latter  will  never  be  hard  to 
accomplish  for  small  forest  tracts. 

The  object  of  thinning  is  the  utilization  of  wood  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  stand,  before  it  is  ripe  for  final  cutting,  by  the  removal  of 
useless  material  which  interferes  more  or  less  with  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  better  trees.  In  making  a  thinning,  the  points  to  be  re- 
membered are,  to  provide  a  suitable  degree  of  growing  space  for  the 
most  desirable  trees  by  freeing  their  crowns  from  those  of  less  desirable 
trees ;  at  the  same  time  a  suitable  degree  of  density  must  be  preserved. 
The  stand  should  be  kept  dense  enough  to  shade  the  ground  fairly  well, 
and  to  stimulate  height  growth  and  facilitate  the  natural  pruning  of 
lateral  branches,  which  takes  place  when  the  stand  is  sufficiently  dense. 

Special  Consideration  of  Loblolly  Pine 

Importance  of  Loblolly  Pine  in  Delaware. — Loblolly  pine  is  easily 
the  most  important  species  for  commercial  timber-growing  in  Dela- 
ware, and  for  this  reason  it  is  considered  at  length  in  this  report. 
While  hardwoods  are  usually  more  desirable  for  farmer 's  woodlots,  yet 
for  money  returns  the  growing  of  loblolly  pine  is  by  far  the  most  profit- 
able. Well-stocked  stands  of  the  tree  will  yield  $100  to  $200  an  acre, 
net  returns,  when  thirty  to  forty  years  old,  which  would  amount  to 
from  4  to  6  per  cent  compound  interest  on  an  original  investment  of 
$20  an  acre  for  the  land  covered  with  one-year-old  pine ;  on  a  lower 
valuation  for  the  land,  stocked  with  pine  seedlings,  the  interest  would, 
of  course,  be  higher. 

Loblolly  pine  is  confined  to  Sussex  County  and  the  southern  half 
of  Kent,  and  it  is  in  this  portion  of  the  State  that  there  are  large  areas 
of  land  sufficiently  low  in  value  to  be  profitably  used  for  growing  tim- 
ber. 

Silvical  Characteristics  of  Loblolly  Pine 

Soil  and  Moisture  Requirements. — The  most  important  require- 
ment of  loblolly  pine  for  its  best  development  and  reproduction  is  a 
moist  soil.  While  it  will  not  grow  in  cypress  sloughs  where  there  is 
continuous  standing  water,  or  very  wet  swamp  conditions,  yet  it  grows 
extremely  well  on  small  hummocks  or  isolated  land  occurring  in  such 
swamps,  in  spots  where  the  soil  is  moist  but  not  constantly  saturated. 


40  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

As  a  rule  clay  soil,  which  is  more  moisture  retentive  than  other  soils,  is 
the  best  for  loblolly  pine,  and  sand  the  least  desirable  because  it  lacks 
the  power  of  holding  moisture ;  loam  and  sandy-loam  rank  between  clay 
and  sand  in  their  relative  desirability.  However,  loblolly  will  grow 
equally  as  well  on  moist  sand  bordering  streams  as  on  good  clay  soil, 
but  on  dry,  sandy  ridges  it  forms  very  open  stands  of  scrubby  and 
limby  trees. 

Form  and  Development. — In  dense  stands,  loblolly  forms  a  very 
long,  clean,  rather  cylindrical  bole,  and  a  short,  ovoid  crown.  Greater 
clear  length  is  attained  when  growing  in  pure  even-aged  stands  than  in 
uneven-aged  stands  or  in  mixture  with  slower-growing  hardwoods.  In 
early  youth  it  is  the  most  rapid-growing  of  any  species  of  pine. 

On  good  soil,  in  pure  stands  fifteen  years  old,  trees  are  often  to  be 
found  10  inches  in  diameter  and  40  feet  in  height ;  and  in  stands  forty 
years  old  many  trees  occur  18  inches  in  diameter  and  80  feet  in  height. 
The  table  on  page  55  shows  the  average  dimensions  attained  by  domi- 
nant trees  of  pure  stands  at  different  ages. 

Reproduction. — The  great  reproductive  power  of  loblolly  pine  is 
its  most  important  silvical  characteristic,  and  has  enabled  it  to  become 
so  universally  extended  throughout  Sussex  County  and  to  increase  in 
amount  of  land  occupied  after  the  lumbering  and  clearing  of  the  origi- 
nal forest. 

Seed  Production  and  Dissemination 

Abundant  seed  is  produced  almost  every  year.  The  tree  flowers  in 
the  latter  part  of  April ;  the  cones  become  fully  developed  a  year  and  a 
half  later,  in  October,  and  the  seed  falls  during  the  autumn  and  win- 
ter. The  cones  usually  remain  on  the  trees  for  a  year  after  they  have 
opened. 

Trees  growing  in  isolated  positions  produce  seed  from  the  time 
they  are  five  to  ten  years  old.  Some  seed  is  produced  by  dominant  trees 
growing  in  very  thick  young  stands,  but  such  stands  do  not  produce 
abundant  seed  until  they  are  about  thirty  years  old.  As  a  rule  trees 
with  well  isolated  crowns  produce  abundant  crops  of  seed. 

The  seed  is  disseminated  principally  by  wind.  A  tree  with  abund- 
ant cones  will  scatter  seed  plentifully  to  a  distance  of  twice  its  own 
height,  and  seed  is  sometimes  blown  by  the  wind  to  a  distance  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  seed  tree.  The  nature  of  the  dissemination 
is  well  illustrated  where  the  seed  trees  are  situated  along  the  edge  of  un- 
used, cleared  land.  To  the  leeward  of  the  trees  there  is  usually  abun- 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  41 

dant  reproduction  to  a  distance  of  50  to  100  feet ;  from  100  to  300  feet 
the  reproduction  is  still  fairly  uniformly  distributed,  but  rather  open ; 
beyond  300  feet  it  is  very  irregular  and  scattering. 

Germination  and  Seedling  Development 

The  seed  germinates  with  great  uniformity,  and  has  as  high  a  ger- 
minating per  cent,  as  any  species  of  pine.  Seed  collected  and  preserved 
under  favorable  conditions  will  retain  the  capacity  for  germination  for 
five  to  ten  years;  when  disseminated  naturally,  however,  they  some- 
times retain  this  capacity  as  long  as  four  years,  but  usually  not  longer 
than  one. 

Germination  is  the  starting  of  vital  activity  in  the  seed  when  it 
commences  to  take  up  moisture  and  swell  under  the  influence  of  suffi- 
cient warmth.  The  encased  radical  enlarges,  bursts  through  the  seed- 
covering,  and  sends  down  its  primary  root  into  the  soil.  After  the  de- 
scending part  has  become  firmly  attached  to  the  soil,  by  root  hairs,  or 
lateral  roots,  the  growth  upward  then  commences,  and  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  cotyledons  and  plumule  the  seedling  becomes  com- 
pletely formed. 

In  spite  of  the  high  germinating  poAver  of  loblolly  seed,  most  of  it 
never  germinates,  because  it  falls  on  unfavorable  situations,  and  many 
young  seedlings  die  because  the  conditions  are  adverse  to  their  develop- 
ment. 

The  seed  requires  a  certain  degree  of  warmth  and  moisture  for 
germination,  while  for  seedling  development  sufficient  light  and  suit- 
able soil  conditions  are  necessary.  These  conditions  constitute  a  fa- 
vorable seedbed.  A  discussion  of  the  relative  suitability  of  different 
natural  situations  as  seedbeds  for  loblolly  pine  is  important.  Dense, 
broken,  and  open  situations  will  be  dealt  with  separately. 

1.  In  dense  forests  the  conditions  may  be  favorable  to  germina- 
tion, but  the  lack  of  light  precludes   seedling   development,  and  any 
seedling,  which  may  have   become    established,   will   scarcely  survive 
more  than  a  year  or  so. 

2.  Under  the  canopy  of  a  broken  stand  the  reproduction  is  often 
excellent.    The  moisture  conditions  are  especially  favorable  to  germi- 
nation, and  there  is  sufficient  light  for  seedling  growth.    Reproduction 
takes  place  on  spots  where  the  bare  mineral  soil  is  exposed,  or  where 
the  organic  soil  of  entirely  decomposed  humus  is  near  the  surface.    A 
thick  ground  cover  of  undecomposed  leaves  or  duff,  however,  makes  re- 
production almost  impossible,  for  the  tiny  radicle  is  unable  to  pierce 


42  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

this  layer  and  derive  sustenance  from  the  soil  beneath.  A  ground  fire, 
which  destroys  the  thick  layer  of  undecomposed  litter,  is  very  favor- 
able to  reproduction,  provided  that  there  is  plenty  of  pine  seed  dis- 
seminated over  the  area  after  the  fire,  and  before  undergrowth  and 
weeds  have  a  chance  to  completely  seed  up  the  ground. 

3.  Open  situations,  whether  in  the  forest  or  on  cleared  areas,  are 
most  conducive  to  pine  reproduction,  as  the  seedling  here  has  full  en- 
joyment of  sunlight.  Reproduction  in  the  open  forest  takes  place  un- 
der the  same  conditions  as  described  for  the  broken  forest,  but  the  in- 
creased amount  of  light  makes  the  seedlings  more  vigorous.  On  areas 
cleared  by  lumbering,  germination  is  fair,  and  the  seedlings  grow  well, 
provided  there  is  no  dense  growth  of  underbrush  and  weeds,  or  a  thick 
layer  of  undecomposed  litter.  Fire  after  lumbering  is  very  favorable 
for  reproduction  from  seed  falling  after  the  fire,  but  kills  all  the  seed 
already  on  the  ground.  The  reproduction  from  seed  dissemination  on 
idle  farm  land  of  all  kinds  is  always  good,  to  which  fact  the  hundreds 
of  acres  of  abandoned  agricultural  land  covered  with  young  pine  at- 
test. Unused,  plowed  land,  with  soil  directly  exposed,  is  most  favor- 
able for  loblolly  reproduction. 

The  seedlings,  once  established,  show  a  strong  and  rapid  develop- 
ment provided  they  have  abundant  light.  The  roots  are  well  developed 
and  deep-growing  in  the  first  year,  and  the  seedlings  are  hardy  against 
climatic  factors  from  the  very  start. 

Enemies. — The  thick  bark  of  loblolly  pine  makes  it  an  exception- 
ally good  fire  resister.  Except  where  the  undergrowth  is  very  dense 
there  is  little  danger  of  loblolly  thickets  being  destroyed  by  fire  after 
they  are  about  ten  years  old  or  20  feet  in  height.  Loblolly  on  dry, 
sandy  ridges  suffers  much  more  from  ground  fires  than  on  moist  bot- 
tomland. Although  at  the  time  of  the  fire  such  stands  are  apparently 
not  damaged,  yet  many  trees  are  weakened  and  later  succumb  to  at- 
tacks of  insects  and  fungi.  There  are  never  any  very  extensive  forest 
fires  in  Delaware  because  the  country  is  so  much  broken  up  by  roads, 
streams,  and  cleared  farm  lands.  It  is  comparatively  easy  for  the  for- 
est owner  to  keep  out  fire  entirely  from  the  young  stands  which  require 
protection  most. 

Dominant  trees  of  loblolly  pine,  which  have  never  been  injured  by 
fire  or  broken  by  the  wind,  are  seldom  attacked  by  fungi  or  insects,  due 
to  their  great  vitality  and  resisting  powers.  Suppressed  trees,  how- 
ever, and  those  which  have  received  physical  injury  become  very  sus- 
ceptible to  such  attacks.  Loblolly  is  not  a  long-lived  species  because  as 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


43 


soon  as  the  mature  tree  is  weakened  by  storms,  it  also  becomes  a  mark 
for  these  attacks.  The  removal,  therefore,  of  all  but  the  sound  and 
healthy  trees  in  loblolly  stands  is  always  a  wise  preventive  measure 
against  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases. 

Growth  and  Yield  of  Pure  Stands. — In  the  management  of  loblolly 
pine  it  is  desirable  to  secure  and  maintain  even-aged,  well  stocked 
stands,  because  the  quantity  and  quality  yield  of  such  stands  will  be 
the  highest.  (See  figure  4.)  The  tables  below  indicate  the  growth  and 


Fig.  4.    Pure  well-stocked  stand  of  Loblolly  Pine,  which  sprung  up  on  old  fields. 

yield  of  such  stands.  The  measurements  for  these  tables  were  taken  in 
stands  established  by  natural  seeding  for  the  most  part  on  abandoned 
fields  in  Worcester  County,  Maryland.  This  county  adjoins  Sussex  on 
the  south,  and  the  tables  apply  equally  well  to  both.  The  yield  in  cubic 
feet  includes  all  the  trees  in  the  stand,  while  that  for  board  feet  in- 
cludes only  trees  6  inches  and  over  in  diameter  at  breastheight,  or  4J 
feet  above  the  ground. 


44 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


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FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


45 


LOBLOLLY  PINE  ON  OLD  FIELDS  IN  MARYLAND. 

Proportion  of  Total  Cubic  Yield  in  Different  Diameter  Classes. 

Quality  1. 


Age 
Years 

Percentage  of  Total  Yield  in  Diameter  Classes 

1  ft-5  in.                 6  ft-9  in. 
per  cent                 per  cent 

10  in.  and  over 
per  cent 

15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 

65 
32 
13 
4 
1 
0 

34 
53 
59 

56 
47 
34 

1 
15 
28 
40 
52 
66 

Quality  2. 


15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 


78 
60 
39 
23 
11 
5 


22 
40 
51 

57 
58 
50 


0 
0 
10 
20 
31 
45 


Forest  Management  of  Loblolly  Pine 

Scope  of  Forest  Management  and  its  Advisability. — Forest  man- 
agement deals  with  the  handling  of  forest  land  to  be  held  continuously 
as  such.  The  land  and  the  growing  stock  of  trees  are  considered  in  the 
nature  of  principal,  and  the  annual  increment  put  on  by  the  growing 
stock  as  interest.  The  wood  increment  is  allowed  to  accumulate  until 
the  trees  composing  the  growing  stock  are  ripe  for  the  ax.  With  the 
harvesting  of  the  mature  timber,  the  growing  of  a  new  stock  of  small 
seedlings  is  secured  by  one  of  two  ways:  (1)  Removal  of  the  ma- 
ture trees  in  such  a  way  as  to  accomplish  the  reproduction  by  natural 
seeding.  The  superior  reproductive  power  of  loblolly  pine  makes  it 
more  adaptable  to  natural  reproduction  than  other  pines,  and,  in  fact, 
than  the  majority  of  other  species.  (2)  Sowing  or  planting  the  area 
subsequent  to  cutting.  This  involves  considerable  financial  outlay,  but 
will  often  te  wise  in  cases  where  well-stocked  stands  cannot  be  secured 
by  natural  reproduction. 

In  ordinary  lumbering  the  future  growing  stock  is  not  considered, 
and  it  is  entirely  a  matter  of  chance  as  to  whether  or  not  a  new  stand  of 
any  value  springs  up,  and  even  where  this  is  the  case  the  stand  is  much 
inferior  in  quality  to  one  grown  according  to  forestry  principles. 


46  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

The  protection  and  improvement  of  stands  once  established,  and 
until  ripe  for  final  cutting,  constitute  an  important  part  of  forest  man- 
agement. They  include  mainly  improvement  thinnings  and  protection 
from  fire.  The  former  can  always  be  made  the  source  of  substantial  net 
returns  from  loblolly  stands  in  Delaware,  in  addition  to  improving  the 
growing  condition  of  the  trees  left,  while  the  latter  will  never  be  ex- 
pensive or  hard  to  accomplish. 

Loblolly  pine  is  decidedly  the  most  desirable  species  in  the  State 
for  commercial  timber-growing,  because  its  silvical  characteristics  make 
it  particularly  adaptable  to  forest  management,  in  conjunction  with 
the  high  prices  which  its  lumber  demands.  It  is  the  most  rapid  grow- 
ing and  easiest  to  reproduce  of  any  species  of  pine. 

Loblolly  grown  in  even-aged,  fully  stocked  stands  will  undoubted- 
ly yield  satisfactory  returns  wherever  the  initial  cost  of  an  acre  of  land 
well  stocked  with  one-year-old  seedlings,  does  not  exceed  $20.  In  thirty 
years  such  a  stand  will  yield  18,900  feet  of  box-board  lumber  per  acre 
worth  at  least  $5  a  thousand  stumpage,  at  which  price  the  net  income 
would  be: 

18900  feet  at  $5  a  thousand $94.50 

Less  20  cents  per  annum  for  30  years  for  an- 
nual recurring  expenses,  including  taxes, 
calculated  at  5  per  cent  compound  interest,  13.30 


Net  profit $81.20 

This  profit  of  eighty-one  dollars  and  twenty  cents  in  thirty  years 
amounts  to  5J  per  cent  compound  interest  on  a  land  valuation  of  $20 
an  acre,  the  stand  having  been  reproduced  naturally  and  without  ex- 
pense. 

Methods  of  Treatment. — The  chief  aim  of  forest  management  for 
loblolly  pine  in  Delaware  should  be  to  grow  even-aged,  well-stocked 
stands  which  will  produce  the  best  quantity  and  quality  yield  of  tim- 
ber. Such  stands  should  not  be  considered  ripe  for  final  cutting  until 
thirty  years  old,  although  trees  large  enough  for  box  lumber  are  to  be 
found  in  stands  fifteen  years  old,  as  the  table  on  page  55  indicates.  The 
only  cutting  which  should  be  undertaken  before  the  stand  is  thirty 
years  old  consists  of  improvement  thinnings  which  remove  the  dead, 
dying,  suppressed,  and  defective  trees.  The  best  method  of  removing 
the  mature  stand  so  as  to  secure  the  best  results  is  to  cut  to  a  diameter 
limit  of  9  inches,  when  the  stand  is  thirty  to  thirty-five  years  old,  and 
later,  in  about  five  or  ten  years,  to  clear  cut  the  trees  left.  ( See  figure 
5.)  The  advantages  of  this  method  are  in  the  increased  growth  of  the 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


47 


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.  ^ 


48  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

trees  left  after  the  first  cutting,  and  in  the  good  reproduction  secured 
during  the  interval  between  the  two  cuttings.  The  first  cutting 
amounts  to  a  partial  clearance ;  it  isolates  the  crowns  of  the  trees  left  so 
that  in  a  couple  of  years  they  will  seed  heavily,  and  it  allows  the  admit- 
tance of  sufficient  light  on  the  ground  to  insure  reproduction.  By  the 
time  the  second  cutting  is  made  the  ground  should  be  well  covered  with 
seedlings  which  are  to  form  the  new  stand.  It  will  always  be  well  to 
leave  one  or  more  old  trees  to  the  acre  to  seed  up  vacant  places  which 
may  exist  after  the  final  cutting. 

There  are  often  serious  impediments  to  the  germination  of  the  seed 
and  the  subsequent  growth  of  the  seedlings,  such  as — (1)  too  thick  a 
ground  cover  of  undecomposed  forest  litter;  (2)  tops  and  branches  left 
after  lumbering;  (3)  undergrowth  of  hardwood  sprouts,  shrubs,  and 
weeds.  It  is  advisable  to  go  to  some  trouble  in  overcoming  such  hind- 
rances to  reproduction.  In  lumbering,  the  trees  should  be  utilized  as 
far  into  the  tops  as  possible  and  the  branches  lopped  off  and  scattered 
so  that  they  will  decompose  quickly.  The  more  the  soil  is  cut  up  and 
the  undecomposed  litter  distributed  in  the  logging  operations,  the  bet- 
ter will  the  seed  germinate ;  so  the  tramping  of  horses  and  the  scraping 
of  logs  over  the  ground  will  certainly  encourage  reproduction. 

The  most  effective  method  of  improving  the  seedbed  is  a  judicious 
use  of  fire,  which,  however,  must  be  very  skilfully  applied.  In  some 
cases  it  may  be  well  to  confine  it  to  the  mere  singeing  over  of  the  brush 
left  scattered  on  the  ground,  which  can  be  accomplished  best  in  winter, 
or  when  the  brush  is  damp.  This  partial  destruction  of  the  brush 
would  be  a  great  benefit  to  reproduction,  and  also  lessen  the  danger 
from  fire.  Where  the  undecomposed  litter  is  especially  thick,  it  would 
be  beneficial  to  burn  over  the  entire  area,  after  it  is  cut  over,  in  order 
to  destroy  both  brush  and  litter.  Such  a  fire  should  only  take  place  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  and  when  it  is  seen  that  the  seed  trees  are  full  of 
cones  which  will  scatter  abundant  seed  over  the  area  the  following  win- 
ter. Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  fire  from  spreading  into  adjacent 
standing  timber,  and  especially  into  recently  reproduced  stands;  also 
the  brush  should  be  well  scraped  from  around  any  seed  trees  left,  to 
prevent  damage  to  them.  It  may  be  practicable  sometimes  to  run  a 
plow  and  turn  a  furrow  to  limit  the  area  to  be  burned  over.  A  ground 
fire  will  temporarily  destroy  much  undergrowth  and  weeds,  which  will 
be  a  great  advantage. 

To  reproduce  loblolly  from  uneven,  mixed  stands  of  pine  and 
hardwoods,  the  latter  should  be  removed  first  and  the  sprouts  and  un- 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  49 

dergrowth  killed  off  by  fire.    Five  to  ten  loblolly  seed  trees  should  be 
left  to  the  acre. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  reproduce  loblolly  after  lumbering  a  stand 
which  has  no  loblolly  in  the  mixture,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  the  old 
stand  clean,  burn  over  the  area  thoroughly,  and  then  sow  pine  seed.  It 
might  often  be  an  excellent  plan*  to  clean  up  such  forest  land  and  cul- 
tivate it  without  fertilizing  for  ten  to  fifteen  years,  as  the  new  soil 
would  give  good  crops  for  that  length  of  time,  and  the  expense  of  fer- 
tilizing would  be  saved.  When  this  land  is  worn  out,  to  grow  loblolly 
pine  upon  it  will  be  an  easy  matter,  and  to  start  the  pine  will  require 
simply  broadcast  sowing.  In  order  to  economize  on  seed  it  will  usually 
be  best  to  sow  in  shallow  furrows  cut  5  or  .6  feet  apart,  or  in  seed-spots 
spaced  not  more  than  6  feet  in  each  direction. 

AFFORESTATION  OF  STATE  SAND-BAR  LAND 

Conditions  on  the  Sand-bar 

There  is  a  sand-bar  in  Delaware  consisting  of  a  narrow  strip,  one 
half  to  one  and  a  half  miles  wide,  and  over  20  miles  long,  extending 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  Cape  Henlopen  to  Fenwick  Light. 
Most  of  this  land  belongs  to  the  State  and  the  practicability  and  ad- 
visability of-:the  State  establishing  forests  upon  it  will  be  shown.  It  is 
recommended  that  this  land  be  set  aside  by  the  State  as  a  State  Forest. 
'  For  over  half  its  length  the  bar  is  bordered  on  the  inside  by  Re- 
hoboth  and  Sinepuxent  Bays,  and  consists  of  a  narrow  spit  between 
them  and  the  ocean.  Portions  of  it  are  known  to  have  been  overflowed 
by  immense  tides  from  the  ocean  to  the  bay.  The  bays  are  very  shallow 
and  are  gradually  filling  up  with  silt  brought  down  by  the  inflowing 
streams.  The  spit  is  made  up  of  three  parts — 

(1)  Twenty  per  cent  of  its  area  consists  of  low  beach  land,  fring- 
ing the  ocean,  where  the  sand  is  more  or  less  shifting,  and  there  is  no 
vegetation.     (See  figure  6.)     This  low  beach  consists  of  a  line  of  low, 
more  or  less  fixed  dunes,  sufficient  to  check  the  force  of  ocean  winds 
and  waves.    There  is  only  one  large  dune,  at  Cape  Henlopen,  which  is 
actively  shifting  inland,  and  is  liable  to  prove  serious  unless  it  can  be 
fixed.     (See  figures  7  and  8.) 

(2)  To  the  leeward  of  the  dune-ridge  of  the  low  beach  is  an  area 
of  middle  beach  land  comprising  about  40  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the 


*Note.     This  plan  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Messick,  of  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture, who  wishes  to  carry  it  out  on  some  of  his  own  land. 


50 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


spit.  The  sand  is  here  fixed  by  strand  vegetation  which  springs  up  to 
the  leeward  of  the  dune  ridge.  Beach  grass  (Ammophila  areanria)  is 
the  important  species  serving  to  fix  the  sand;  it  springs  up  in  large 
clumps  from  a  very  vigorous  underground  rootstock,  grows  very  rapid- 
ly in  height,  and  so  keeps  above  the  constantly  accumulating  sand. 

(3)   To  the  leeward  of  the  middle  beach  and  extending  to  the  bay 
is  a  more  or  less  marshy  area  comprising  about  40  per  cent  of  the  area 


Fig.  6.     Ordinary  low  dune,  along  seacoast. 

of  the  spit.  This  area  is  usually  covered  with  a  fairly  thick  growth  of 
marsh  grass,  upon  which  cattle  browse,  and  which  is  cut  for  hay. 
Spartina  patens  and  Cyperus  americaniis,  in  the  more  protected  places, 
form  the  bulk  of  the  vegetation. 

Wherever  the  sand  has  become  sufficiently  fixed  by  beach  and 
marsh  grasses,  two  shrubby  species  make  their  appearance,  wax  myrtle 
(Myrica  cerifera)  and  baccharis  B.  glomeruliflora,  which  make  condi- 
tions more  favorable  for  seed  germination  and  the  development  of  pine 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  51 

trees.  Open,  scrubby  thickets  of  pine  are  thus  formed  by  natural  seed- 
ing in  spots  on  the  bar.  The  trees  are  kept  stunted  by  severe,  salt- 
laden  east  winds  which  in  winter  kill  all  the  needles  on  the  exposed  side 
of  the  tree.  However,  where  the  stand  is  sufficiently  thick,  as  it  is  in 
the  Rehoboth  Town  Woodlot,  only  the  outer  fringe  of  trees  is  kept 
stunted  while  inside  the  stand  the  trees  attain  good  development.  (See 
figure  9.) 


Fig.  7.    Henlopen  dune  encroaching  inland,  gradually  burying  a  loblolly  pine  thicket. 

Establishing  Forests  on  the  Sand-bar 

The  desirability  of  having  as  much  as  possible  of  the  area  of  the 
sand-bar  in  forest  is  unquestionable.  The  chief  advantages  would  be 
the  production  of  timber  on  otherwise  waste  land,  the  seashore  render- 
ed more  fixed  and  secure,  and  the  force  and  sweep  of  ocean  winds  les- 
sened. As  a  place  for  summer  resorts,  for  which  the  bar  is  chiefly  of 
any  value,  it  would  be  incomparably  better  if  covered  with  groves  of 


52  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

pine.  The  prevailing  opinion  of  longshoremen  is  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  establish  forests  on  the  sand-bar.  However,  French  exper- 
ience has  demonstrated  the  feasibility  of  growing  forests  anywhere 
along  the  coast  immediately  back  of  the  dune  ridge  of  the  lower  beach 
area.  It  will  be  a  difficult  undertaking  at  first,  but  it  can  be  done.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  experiment  with  different  methods  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  best  ways  and  means  of  establishing  forests. 


Remains  of  a  pine  forest  on  Cape  Henlopen  buried  by  sand  dunes. 

Planting  can  only  take  place  in  the  area  back  of  the  dune  ridge 
and  only  where  there  are  sufficient  beach  or  marsh  grasses  to  hold 
the  sand.  (See  figure  10.)  Loblolly  pine  will  be  the  most  desirable 
species.  It  may  be  necessary  in  some  instances  to  provide  a  nat- 
ural growth  of  shrubs  for  protection  to  the  young  seedlings;  myrtle 
and  baccharis,  propagated  from  cuttings  and  placed  4  feet  apart,  will 
form  large  clumps  in  three  to  four  years,  and  two-year-old  loblolly 
seedlings  planted  to  the  leeward  of  such  bunches  will  certainly  grow. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE. 


53 


There  are  a  number  of  sturdy  hardwood  species  which  might  be  ex- 
pected to  serve  well  as  windbreaks  along  the  border  of  pine  planta- 
tions, such  as  black  willow,  red  mulberry,  black  cottonwood,  and  ailan- 
thus.  The  best  form  of  protection  is  a  high  dune  ridge  to  the  leeward 
of  which  trees  will  grow  well.  These  ridges  have  been  built  in  France, 
and  have  proved  extremely  successful.  The  French  are  the  best  au- 
thorities on  this  subject,  and  have  written  many  books  upon  it,  the  best 


Fig.  9.    Loblolly  stand,  100  yards  from  seacoast,  on  the  middle  beach  of  the  sand  bar. 

probably  being  "Etude  sur  la  cote  et  dunes  du  Medoc,"  by  Pierre  Buf- 
fault* 

Draining  the  marsh  portions  of  the  sand-bar  would  increase  its 
adaptability  for  growing  loblolly.  Some  years  ago  a  large  amount  of 
money  was  spent  by  the  Federal  Government  in  work  on  constructing 
an  inland  waterway  from  Lewes  to  Sinepuxent  Bay,  but  the  project 


*Note.     The  best  German  reference  is  "Bildung,    Entwickelung    und    Bau    der 
Dune,"  by  Sokolow. 


54 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


was  abandoned  before  half  completed  as  it  was  found  to  be  too  expen- 
sive. What  digging  was  done  served  to  drain  a  large  area  of  marsh- 
land between  Ocean  View  and  Bethany  Beach,  which  has  since  become 
seeded  up,  in  part,  to  some  good,  young  loblolly  thickets,  while  other 
portions  of  it  have  been  put  under  cultivation.  Representative  Bur- 
ton, of  Delaware,  is  now  working  on  a  scheme  for  the  completion  of  an 


!j£L£  .,f 

tl 


Fig.  10.  Middle  of  sand  bar,  where  sand  is  well  fixed  by  beach  grass.    Such  land  is  suitable 

for  planting. 

inland  waterway  from  Lewes  into  and  through  Rehoboth  Bay,  which 
is  a  much  smaller  project  and  would  not  require  a  large  appropriation 
by  Congress.  Such  a  canal  would  not  only  prove  of  immense  value 
as  an  inland  highway  for  ships  but  would  also  result  in  draining  large 
areas  of  marshland  along  the  sand-bar. 

Afforestation  of  the  sand-bar  is  an  entirely  practicable  proposi- 
tion for  the  State  to  undertake.  The  fact  that  the  completion  of  the 
inland  waterway  from  Lewes  to  Rehoboth  would  greatly  increase  nat- 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  55 

ural  afforestation  on  the  sand-bar,  by  draining  large  areas  of  marsh- 
land furnishes  an  additional  reason  for  this  canal  work  being  done, 
either  by  an  appropriation  from  Congress  or  the  State. 

A  STATE  FOREST  POLICY  FOR  DELAWARE 

Recent  expert  investigation  of  the  problem  of  our  future  timber 
supply  emphasizes  the  facts  that  the  next  generation  will  be  consider- 
ably limited  in  the  sources  of  timber  supply ;  that  there  will  be  an  in- 
creasing percentage  of  lumber  of  poorer  quality  used ;  and  that  there 
will  be  a  steady  rise  in  prices  of  forest  products  of  all  kinds.  It  is  the 
duty  of  both  State  and  Federal  Governments  to  do  what  they  can  to 
alleviate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  future  timber  scarcity  which,  in  the 
course  of  time,  is  bound  to  come. 

There  are  two  general  lines  of  action  which  the  State  of  Delaware 
should  pursue,  in  order  to  better  its  future  wood  supply  conditions : 

(1)  To  encourage  forestry  by  private  owners. 

(2)  To  create  State  forests. 

(1)  Encourage  Forestry  by  Private  Owners 

The  State  should  take  such  action  as  will  encourage  private  own- 
ers in  the  care  of  their  woodlands  with  a  view  of  greater  timber  pro- 
duction in  the  State,  which  would  considerably  increase  the  revenue 
derived  from  forest  land. 

Rational  treatment  of  forests  by  private  owners  can  be  greatly 
promoted  by  means  of  State  action  along  the  following  lines : 

(a)  There  should  be  adequate  fire  and  trespass  laws*  for  the  pro- 
tection of  private  forests,  and  an  equitable  system  of  county  taxation 
for  forest  lands. 

(b)  Provision  should   be   made   for  lectures   on  forestry  before 
farmers  institutes  and  at  the  State  college. 

(c)  Provision  should  be  made  for  expert  examination  of  wood- 
lands of  private  owners  and  advice  as  to  the  proper  methods  of  treat- 
ing them. 

(d)  A  nursery  should  be  established  and  maintained  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Experiment  Station,  in  order  to  provide  forest  tree  seed- 
lings free  of  charge  to  those  wishing  to  plant. 

(e)  Provision  should  be  made  for  experimental  planting  and  for- 
estry work  to  be  carried  on,  especially  on  lands  belonging  to  the  State 
or  public  institutions,  and  for  publishing  the  results  of  forest  manage- 
ment in  different  parts  of  the  State. 


Note.     For  Delaware  statutes  relating  to  forests,  see  appendix. 


56  BULLETIN  No.  82. 

The  promotion  of  the  agricultural  interests  of  private  owners  by 
the  State  is  extremely  well  carried  on  by  the  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, and  the  promotion  of  forest  management  could  also  be  made  more 
or  less  a  branch  of  the  work  of  the  Experiment  Station,  as  is  the  case  in 
Ohio. 

(2)   Create  State  Forests 

Theoretically  the  State  is  the  ideal  owner  of  forest  land,  to  be 
held  continuously  as  such,  as  it  best  can  afford  to  practice  forestry. 
Forest  management  deals  with  the  growing  of  a  crop  which  requires 
one,  two,  or  more  generations  to  become  ripe,  and  this  time  element  is 
the  great  drawback  which  tends  to  deter  private  owners  from  properly 
handling  their  woodland,  while  with  the  State,  which  considers  the 
welfare  of  the  next  as  well  as  of  the  present  generation,  this  factor  of 
time  should  have  no  influence. 

It  should  be  the  policy  of  the  State  of  Delaware  to  acquire  all  the 
land  for  State  forest  purposes,  which  can  be  procured  at  a  sufficiently 
low  figure,  and  in  lots  sufficiently  large  for  convenience  of  administra- 
tion and  management.  The  price  paid  should  not  exceed  $10  per  acre, 
and  contiguous  holdings  of  not  less  than  100  acres  and  preferably  500 
acres  in  extent  should  be  purchased. 

Afforestation  of  the  large  area  of  sand-bar  land,  owned  by  the 
State  in  Sussex  County,  has  already  been  discussed  and  shown  to  be 
both  practicable  and  advisable.  The  boundaries  or  extent  of  this  State 
land  are  not  accurately  known  at  present,  but  are  soon  to  be  deter- 
mined by  survey ;  those  who  are  best  able  to  judge  estimate  that  its  area 
is  at  least  10,000  acres.  Most  of  this  land  should  be  set  aside  as  a  State 
Forest,  since  75  per  cent  of  it  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  support  a 
good  forest  growth.  If  pine  forests  were  established  on  this  sand-bar 
they  would  not  only  be  an  important  source  of  timber  supply  and 
revenue  to  the  State  in  the  future,  but  also  a  great  protective  measure 
in  the  fixation  of  dunes. 

State  Board  of  Forestry  and  a  State  Forester 

There  should  be  created,  in  Delaware,  a  State  Board  of  Forestry, 
consisting  of  seven  members,  including  the  Governor  of  the  State,  the 
Director  of  the  Experiment  Station,  the  State  Horticulturist,  and  the 
three  members  and  the  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture; 
this  Board  to  act  without  compensation,  save  for  actual  necessary  ex- 
penses  incurred  in  the  performance  of  official  duties. 


FOREST  CONDITIONS  IN  DELAWARE.  57 

The  duties  of  this  Board  should  be:  to  promote  the  State  forest 
policy,  and  modify  the  one  adopted  when  deemed  expedient;  and  to 
encourage  rational  forest  management  by  private  owners.  It  should 
have  control  of  the  disbursement  of  funds  appropriated  for  forestry 
purposes,  and  general  administration  of  State  forests  which  may  be 
created. 

It  is  recommended  that  a  technically  trained  forester  be  appointed, 
to  serve  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Board  of  Forestry  and  as  an 
adjunct  to  the  Experiment  Station  and  the  State  College.  He  should 
be  known  as  the  State  Forester,  and  should  receive  a  salary  for  his  ser- 
vices, and  be  reimbursed  for  necessary  field  expenses.  His  chief  duties 
would  consist  in  executing  the  recommendations  already  given  for  en- 
couraging private  forestry,  and  in  managing  any  State  Forests  which 
may  be  created. 


58 


BULLETIN  No.  82. 


Criminal 
trespass  on 
timber. 


Penaly. 


Setting  fires 
near  timber. 


Penalty. 


APPENDIX. 

Delaware  Statutes  Relative  to  Forests 

"Revised  Code,  Chap.  CXXVIIL— Sec.  17.  If  any 
person  shall  willfully  and  unlawfully  *  *  *  fell,  or  cut 
down,  any  tree,  or  sapling  of  another ;  or  shall  willfully  and 
unlawfully  bark,  or  skin  any  tree  or  sapling  of  another, 
standing  or  growing  in  the  soil,  and  attached  to  the  free- 
hold, without  the  consent  of  the  owner  of  such  tree,  or  sap- 
ling, had  and  obtained ;  such  person  shall  be  deemed  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  two 
hundred  dollars,  and  may  also,  in  the  discretion  of  the 
court,  be  imprisoned  for  a  term  not  exceeding  two  months. 

Revised  Code,  Page  946. — Sec.  1.  From  and  after  the 
passage  of  this  act  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  to 
set  fire  to  any  grass,  brush,  or  other  substance,  where  the 
burning  thereof  will  in  any  manner  endanger  any  timber, 
either  standing  or  felled,  or  other  property,  without  first 
giving  sufficient  notice  to  the  owners  and  occupiers  of  such 
timber  and  property,  as  will  enable  them  to  take  such  neces- 
sary steps  to  guard  against  such  damages  as  they  may  deem 
proper,  of  his  intention  to  set  fire  to  such  grass,  brush,  or 
other  substance,  and  using  all  due  and  necessary  precaution 
on  his  part  to  prevent  any  damage  or  loss  to  the  timber  or 
property  of  others. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person  violating  Sec.  1  of  this  act  shall, 
upon  conviction  thereof,  before  any  justice  of  the  peace  of 
this  State,  be  by  said  justice  fined  any  sum  not  exceeding 
twenty-five  dollars-  and  costs  of  prosecution,  and  besides, 
be  liable  in  a  suit  for  damages  that  may  be  sustained  by 
any  one  on  account  of  his  failure  to  comply  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act. ' ' 


14  DAY  USE 

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U.  C.  BERKELEY 

LD  21-32m-3,'74 
(R7057slO)476— A-32 


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